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 ‘close relationship’ to a harm ‘traditionally’ recognized as providing a basis for a lawsuit in American courts.” TransUnion LLC v. Ramirez, 141 S. Ct. 2190, 2204 (2021) (quoting Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins, 578 U.S. 330, 341 (2016)).

By the standards of history and tradition, the harm to conscience that Plaintiffs suffer is a paradigmatically cognizable injury. American law has recognized conscience rights from the start. See, e.g., of 1784, pt. I, art. IV (“Among the natural rights, some are in their very nature unalienable, because no equivalent can be given or received for them. Of this kind are the rights of conscience.”); of 1790, art. IX, § 3 (“[N]o human authority can, in any case whatever, control or interfere with the rights of conscience.”);  of 1792, art. XII, § 3 (same); of 1803, art. VIII, § 3 (same);  of 1819, art. I, § 4 (“No human authority ought, in any case whatever, to control or interfere with the rights of conscience.”);  of 1835, art. I, § 3 (“[N]o human authority can, in any case whatever, control or interfere with the rights of conscience.”); of 1820, art. XIII, § 4 (“[N]o human authority can control or interfere with the rights of conscience.”); of 1836, art. II, § 3 (“[N]o human authority can, in any case whatever, interfere with the rights of conscience.”);  of 1848, art. I, § 18 (“Nor shall any control of, or interference with the rights of conscience be permitted.”);  of 1858, art. I, § 16 (same);  of 1859, Bill of Rights, § 7 (same).

Throughout the nineteenth century, American courts granted relief to parties who challenged government action as injurious to conscience. See, e.g., White v. McBride, 7 Ky. (4 Bibb) 61, 61 (1815) (suit brought against sheriff by plaintiffs who “entertained conscientious scruples against bearing arms”); In re Dorsey, 7 Port. 293, 345, 365–69 (Ala. 1838) (attorney seeking conscience-based exemption from anti-dueling oath required for bar admission); ''State ex rel. Weiss v. Dist. Bd. of Sch. Dist. No. 8 of City of Edgerton'',