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 232 COMPARATIVE ARCHITKCTURE. bell ringing was not then in existence, but they may be regarded as prototypes of the mediaeval towers and spires. The Cloisters of S. John Lateran, Rome (a.d. 1234), and of S. Paul beyond the walls, Rome (a.d. 1241) (No. 98 b) are of extreme interest. They are formed in square bays, the vault arches inclosing the arcades in groups of five or more openings. The special feature of the cloisters consists of the small twisted columns inlaid with glass mosaic in patterns of great beauty, and forming an evidence of the patient skill of the craftsman. S. Miniato, Florence (No. 93), is a leading example of the Central Italian style. The length of the church is divided into three main compartments, and the raised easiern portion, under which is a crypt, is open to the nave. This division of the church by piers seems a prelude to the idea of vaulting in compartments, and is an evident departure from the basilican type of long unbroken ranges of columns or arcades. The marble panelling, and banding in black and white marble of the exterior and interior, were carried to a further extent in the Gothic period. Very notable is the open timber roof with its decoration, recently restored, in bright coloring of gold, green, blue and red. For the Co nparative table of Italian Romanesque, see page 242. NORTH ITALY. I. INFLUENCES. i. Geographical. — Milan, the capital of Lombardy, always had a high degree of prosperity, on account of its favourable situation in the centre of that state, and its proximity to several of the Alpine passes. The city is surrounded by rich plains, and the cultivation of the mulberry (for the silkworm), and the vine, adds to the general prosperity of the district. Ravenna and Venice, as trade connecting links with the Eastern Empire, reflect the culture and architectural forms derived therefrom. ii. Geological. — Brick is the great building material of the plains of Lombardy, and the local architecture shows the influence of this material. iii. Climate. — North Italy has a climate resembling that of Central Europe, i.e., a climate of extremes. Milan is near enough to the Alps to experience cold in winter, while in summer the heat is often excessive. iv. Religion. — At the end of the fourth century, Theodosius, the great emperor, had been forced to do penance on account of a massacre in Thessalonica, S. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (374-398), closini:r the doors of the Church against him. This is an instance