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 NOVIKOV

O BEIEN

business world at Boston, but continued in his leisure to cultivate a fine literary taste. During the Civil War he edited the Loyal Publication Society s papers, and from 1864 to 1868 he was associated with J. E. Lowell in the control of the North American Review. From 1875 to 1898 he was professor of the history of art at Harvard University ; and he was first President of the Archaeological Institute of America and member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He trans lated Dante s New Life (1867) and Divine Comedy (2 vols., 1891-92), and wrote a number of volumes (including his fine History of Ancient Art, 1891). Professor Norton was one of the most cultivated Americans of his generation, and he had an excellent influence on its standard of culture. He was a friend of Sir L. Stephen, who owed the title Essays on Freethinking and Plainspeaking to him. Stephen dedicated the book to him, and says in one of his letters that Norton and Morley are the only two men from whom he expects perfect agreement about religion (Life of Leslie Stephen, 1906, p. 235). Stephen s letters to him imply that he is a brother-Agnostic with the most disdainful feeling towards Christianity (pp. 245, 247, etc.). D. Oct. 21, 1908.

NOYIKOY, Yakov, Eussian sociologist. B. Sep. 29, 1849. Ed. Florence, Naples, and Odessa Universities. Novikov studied law, but the fascination of Italy drew him to art and letters, and from these he later turned to sociology. He settled at Odessa, and wrote a number of important socio logical works. He was President of the first International Sociological Congress, and one of the leading Eussian Pacifists (War and its Alleged Benefits, Eng. trans., 1912). His Eationalist views appear in his La justice et I expansion de la vie (1905), and he has taken part in various International Freethought Congresses.

NOYES, Rufus King, M.D., American physician. B. May 24, 1853. Ed. privately, 561

at Atkinson Academy, and Dartmouth Medical College. Graduating in 1875, he was appointed house-surgeon at the Boston City Hospital, and he later had a very prosperous practice. Dr. Noyes made some name by reform in medical practice, and wrote a number of popular medical works. He is a Materialist (Putnam s Four Hundred Years of Freethought, p. 781), and makes open profession of his views in his Science and Art of Ignorance ; or, the Conspiracy of Christian Ministers, Priests, and Theologians Against Humanity.

NYSTROM, Anton Kristen, Ph.D., M.D., Swedish writer. B. Feb. 15, 1842. Ed. Upsala, Stockholm, Copenhagen, Berlin, Vienna, Paris, and London. Nystrom settled in medical practice at Stockholm ; but he adopted the Positivist creed and took an active part in public life. He founded a branch of the Posi tivist Society in 1879, and the Workmen s Institute at Stockholm in 1880. He has edited the Positivist Hymn Book and written a number of Positivist works. Dr. Nystrom is, however, also an active Eationalist and a member of the Free- thought Federation of Sweden. His views are chiefly expressed in his important history of civilization (Allmdn Kultur- historia, 6 vols., 1886-93) and his Kris- tendom o. den Friatanken (1908). See also Anton Nystrom (1891), by C. E. Farnell. He is one of the foremost cham pions of Eationalism in Sweden. There is an English translation of his Before, During, and After 1914 (1915).

O BRIEN, James (&quot; Bronterre O Brien &quot;), Irish agitator. B. 1805. Ed. Trinity College, Dublin. He entered Gray s Inn in 1830, and was called to the bar, but the advanced movements of the time attracted him, and he became a lecturer and journalist. In 1831 he began to edit H. Hetherington s unstamped paper, The Poor Man s Guardian, and under the pseudonym of &quot; Bronterre O Brien,&quot; by which he became generally known, he 562