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 bands of retainers who would fight their quarrels. His ministers and privy councillors were either bishops or middle-class laymen; and the Privy Council became almost more important than Parliament. He cut off few heads, but chose them wisely, for those he did cut off were the most dangerous. A great monarchy was growing up in Spain as well as in France; even Germany was trying hard to be a united country. Henry watched them all, and made numerous treaties with them, but refused to be led into expense er adventures; above all he avoided wars. With Scotland he kept firm peace, the first real peace since 1290, and he married his daughter Margaret to King James IV; it was the great-grandson of this marriage who, as James I, finally united the two countries in 1603. As for the Church, it also seemed to be wrapped in profound peace; the mutterings against it were all under the surface.

Yet before Henry died, the ‘New Learning’, which was to lead to the Reformation, was in full swing in England. Great scholars like John Colet and Thomas More were reading the Scriptures in their original Greek, and finding out how very much the Roman Church differed from the earliest forms of Christianity. The study of Greek had begun at both universities, and English scholars were continually travelling to Germany and Italy.

In 1509 Henry died, and was succeeded by his son Henry VIII, aged eighteen, a most splendid young man, of great natural cleverness and devoted to the New Learning, but devoted also to every sort of game, pleasure and extravagance. For the business of the State he at first cared nothing; ‘Oh, go and talk to my