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 VIII] Philosophy il1, the Nyiiya sutras 295 Such a testimony may tell us about things which may be ex- perienced and which are beyond experience. Objects of know- ledge are said to be self (iitmall), body, senses, sense-objects, understanding (buddhi), mind (mallas), endeavour (Pravrtti), re- births, enjoyment of pleasure and suffering of pain, sorrow and salvation. Desire, antipathy, effort (Prayatlla), pleasure, pain, and knowledge indicate the existence of the self. Body is that which upholds movement, the senses and the rise of pleasure and pain as arising out of the contact of sense with sense-objects l ; the five senses are derived from the five elements, such as PfthivI, ap, tejas, vayu and akasa; smell, taste, colour, touch, and sound are the qualities of the above five elements, and these are also the objects of the senses. The fact that many cognitions cannot occur at anyone moment indicates the existence of mind (mallas). Endeavour means what is done by speech, understanding, and body. Doas (attachment, antipathy, etc.) are those which lead men to virtue and vice. Pain is that which causes suffering!. Ultimate cessation from pain is called apavarga 3. Doubt arises when through confusion of similar qualities or conflicting opinions etc., one wants to settle one of the two alternatives. That for attaining which, or for giving up which one sets himself to work is called prayojalla. Illustrative example (dr#iinta) is that on which both the common man and the expert (parikaka) hold the same opinion. Established texts or conclusions (siddhiillta) are of four kinds, viz. (I) those which are accepted by all schools of thought called the sarvatalltrasiddhiillta; (2) those which are held by one school or similar schools but opposed by others called the pratitalltra- siddhiillta; (3) those which being accepted other conclusions will also naturally follow called adhikarazasiddhiillta; (4) those of the opponent's views which are uncritically granted by a debater, who proceeds then to refute the consequences that follow and thereby show his own special skill and bring the opponent's intellect to disrepute (abhyupagamasiddlliillta) 4.. The premisses are five: 1 Here I have followed Vatsyayana's meaning. 2 Vatsyayana comments here that when one finds all things full of misery, he wishes to avoid misery, and finding birth to be associated with pain becomes unattached and thus is emancipated. 3 Vatsyayana wants to emphasize that there is no bliss in salvation, but only cessation from pain. 4 I have followed Viitsyayana's interpretation here.