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 there were not a dozen Catholics." His father, a respectable farmer, emigrated to the United States in 1817, and John was placed with a florist. He devoted his spare time to study, entered a Catholic seminary in Maryland, and in 1825 was ordained a priest. As a preacher he soon distinguished himself, and was elected a member of various literary societies. In 1838 he was consecrated Coadjutor Bishop of New York, and in 1842, upon the death of Bishop Dubois, was confirmed in the see. Already he had made a tour through France, Austria, and Italy, to collect funds for the spread of his faith in the United States. In 1850 New York was made an archbishopric, and he was created the first Archbishop, as his countryman Archbishop Kenrick had been created first Primate of the United States. He was a bitter opponent of the abolitionists, and a strenuous apologist for slavery. Drake says: "He was prominent in the effort made by the Catholics to modify the existing schoolsystem in their favour, and was successful." In 1847 he delivered, by request, before Congress an address—"Christianity the only source of moral, social, and political regeneration." The organization and extension of Catholicism through the United States was largely due to his statesmanlike abilities. He was ever devoted to the cause of Irish nationality, and when the report reached New York in 1848 that Ireland was in insurrection, a public meeting was held to subscribe funds. "I attended," says Bishop Hughes, "to show, that in my conscience I have no scruple in aiding this cause in every way worthy a patriot and a Christian." "My contribution shall be for a shield, not for a sword," he added, "but you can contribute for what you choose." After the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861, he was by the United States government sent on a mission to Europe to counteract the intrigues of the Confederates. He does not appear to have been the author of any works beyond lectures and pamphlets. Archbishop Hughes died in New York, 3rd January 1864, aged 66. His sister Ellen (Mother Angela), who died two years after him, was for many years superioress of a New York hospital, and during the war was active in aiding the Sanitary Commission.

Humbert, Jean Joseph Amable, a French general, was born at Rouvray, Lorraine, 25th November 1755, and was in 1798 appointed to command an expedition for the invasion of Ireland. With his flotilla of three frigates and a brig, he arrived off Killala, on the coast of Mayo, on the 22nd August 1798, and next day landed his troops and occupied the town. His force consisted of 1,060 men, with three pieces of cannon and large supplies of arms. He was accompanied by Matthew Tone and Bartholomew Teeling, two United Irishmen. Proclamations were issued, and large numbers of the peasantry flocked to his standard to be drilled and armed. About 1,000 Irish were completely equipped; and in all 5,500 muskets were distributed. The people themselves manufactured large numbers of pikes. "The uncombed, ragged peasant, who had never before known the luxury of shoes and stockings, now washed, powdered, and full dressed, was metamorphosed into another being, the rather because the far greater part of these mountaineers were by no means deficient either in size or person. 'Look at these poor fellows,' said Humbert with an air of triumph, 'they are made, you find, of the same stuff as ourselves.'" The officers occupied the Bishop's palace at Killala as their head-quarters—scrupulously respecting private property, and intruding as little as possible on the privacy of the family. Temporary magistrates were appointed in the occupied districts; but in a state of war many outrages on private property were inevitable. The exercise of Protestant worship was not interfered with, except that one Presbyterian meeting-house was wrecked. Bishop Stock, who was in Killala during the entire occupation, thus speaks of the conduct of the people: "During the whole time of this civil commotion, not a drop of blood was shed by the Connaught rebels, except in the field of war. It is true the example and influence of the French went a great way to prevent sanguinary excesses; but it will not be deemed fair to ascribe to this cause alone the forbearance of which we are witnesses, when it is considered what a range of country lay at the mercy of the rebels for several days after the French power was known to be at an end.… Intelligence, activity, temperance, patience, to a surprising degree, appeared to be combined in the soldiery that came over with Humbert, together with the exactest obedience to discipline." The French troops were amused at the deep religious feelings of their new allies, and at their being spoken of by the Irish as "the Virgin Mary's soldiers." The French frigates sailed on the 24th August, and on the 27th, Humbert's army, with about 1,500 Irish auxiliaries, marched against Castlebar, and drove General Lake's forces out of the town, not without a stout resistance and much bloodshed. A considerable number of militia deserted to Humbert's standard. Lord Cornwallis, however, immediately 256