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 Rh Stuart Mill and Spencer, each taking their own course. We have likewise found investigators outside of France and England, who have become positivists independently. Among these we wish to describe Eugen Dühring of Germany and Roberto Ardigo, the Italian.

1. Eugen Dühring (born 1883), despite the fact that he became blind early in life, has shown a remarkable activity as a teacher and author. His external misfortunes were due to his severe opposition to and distrust of academic authorities; on account of which he was dismissed from his position as a Privatdocent at the University of Berlin. He has published a characteristic autobiography under the title, Sache, Leben und Feinde Als Hauptwerk und Schlüssel zu seinen sammtlichen Werken (1882).

His first work of any consequence was Natural Dialectic (1865). Here he is still in close touch with the critical philosophy, and he distinguishes sharply between formal and real science. The intellect is constantly striving to discover continuous transitions and to form infinite series (i.e. capable of continuation according to the same principle). In mathematics, e.g. we have the concept of infinity and in logic the principle of sufficient reason. But we must not transfer this tendency to continuity to the sphere of real bring. Here the principle of definite number prevails, as experience shows. Astronomy, physics and chemistry show how completely the character of natural processes and natural elements are governed by the law of definite proportions. Each separate series of causes which nature reveals consists of a finite number of members.

Dühring's theory of the vital relation between the laws of thought and being presents a singular contrast to the above distinction. Thought is a continuation of being.