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 philosophy, particularly that of Kant and Schelling. Lawrence Veith, Goldhagen, and the Augsburg Jesuits, were brilliant exceptions; but the best work of the period is Liebermann’s Institutions. Baader, Hermes, and Günther attempted a more profound philosophical treatment of dogma in opposition to the Protestant philosophy. Their efforts were signalized by great intellectual power, but, at the same time, by dissociation from genuine theology, and by ignorance, or at least neglect, of the traditions of the schools. Italy alone preserved the orthodox tradition; many of the writers named in the period of decay continued their labours far into the present period.

The toleration granted to Catholics in England and Scotland during the second half of the eighteenth century, gave them the opportunity of publishing works on Catholic doctrine. We may mention Bishop Challoner (1691–1781), Grounds of the Catholic Doctrine, The Catholic Christian Instructed, The Grounds of the Old Religion; Bishop Hay (1729–1811), Sincere Christian, Devout Christian, Pious Christian, and a treatise on miracles—an excellent edition of these has been published by Blackwood, Edinburgh; and Bishop Milner (1752–1826), whose End of Controversy is still the best work against Low Churchmen and Dissenters.

When order was restored to Europe after the wars of the Revolution, the Church found herself stripped of her possessions and excluded from the ancient seats of learning. In spite of these disadvantages, signs were not wanting of the dawn of a new epoch of theological learning which seems destined to be in no way inferior to those which have gone before. The movement begun in France by Lamennais, Lacordaire, and Montalembert, was taken up even more vigorously in Germany. The study of Church history was revived by Döllinger, Hefele, Hergenröther, Janssen, and Pastor; Canon law, by Walter and Philips; Scripture, by Windischmann and Kaulen; Symbolism, by Möhler; Dogma, by Klee, Kuhn, Knoll, Scheeben, and Schwane; Scholastic philosophy and theology, by Kleutgen. The labours of the German school are summed up in the great Kirchenlexicon, published by Herder, of Freiburg. In Italy Liberatore and Sanseverino brought back the