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CHINA

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perception are to be attributed all the vagaries of her diplomacy pletion of the task. By degrees the emperor’s authority was and the complications in which she became involved. Korea was established from the confines of Kansuh111to Kashgar and Yarkand, the first of the dependencies to come into notice. In 1866 some and Chinese garrisons were stationed touch with the Russian Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered, and about the same outposts in the region of the Pamirs (December 1877). There time an American vessel was burnt in one of the rivers and her remained only the north-eastern province of Kuldja, occupied crew murdered. China refused satisfaction, ^both to France and by Russia, but under a promise made m 1871 to restore it when America, 'and suffered reprisals to be made on Korea without protest. China was in a position to maintain order. This promise Russia America 'and Japan both desired to conclude commercial treaties was now called upon to redeem. It is probable that, in making for the opening up of Korea, and proposed to negotiate with China. this promise, Russia calculated that the day was tar distant when China refused and referred them to the Korean Govern- Korea and China would be in a position to fulfil the condition ; at all events ment direct, saying she was not wont to interfere m she showed no desire to comply with the request. China de- the affairs of her vassal states. As a result Japan con- Japan spatched Chung-how, a Manchu of the highest rank, who had cluded a treaty in 1876, in which the independence of Korea was been notoriously concerned in the Tientsin massacre of 18/1, to expressly recognized. This was allowed to pass without protest, St Petersburg to negotiate a settlement. After some months of but as other nations proceeded to conclude treaties on the same discussion a document was signed, (September 1879), termed the terms China began to perceive her mistake, and endeavoured to treatyq ofq Livadia, whereby China recovered, not indeed tack on to each a declaration by the king that he was in fact a Imperial the u lc ej put a considerable portion of the disputed consolida- terlqtory on }ler paying to Russia five million roubles tributary—a declaration, however, which was quietly ignored. tioa however, was the only Power with which controversy ’ as the cost of occupation. At first sight it was con- Japan, immediately arose. In 1882 a faction fight, which had long keen sidered by Western diplomatists that, having regard to the small smouldering, broke out, headed by the king’s father, the Tai amount of pressure he could bring to bear, Chung-how had Won Kun, in the course of which the Japanese legation was acquitted himselfj of his mission rather well. The treaty was, attacked and the whole Japanese colony had to flee for their lives. however, received with a storm of indignation m China. Li liung- China sent troops, and by adroitly kidnapping the Tai Won Kun, Chang and Tso Tsung-tang took up the cry Chung-how was order was for a time restored. The Japanese legation was placed under arrest as soon as he returned. . Memorials poured in replaced, but under the protection of a strong body of Japanese from all sides denouncing the treaty and its author. Foremost troops. Further revolutions and riots followed, m which the among these was one by Chang Chih-tung, then occupying a troops of the two countries took sides, and there was imminent subordinate post in the Hanlin, who has since become the mos danger of war. To obviate this risk, it was agreed m 188o distinguished of the viceroys, and is actually governor-general of between Count Ito and Li Hung-Chang that both sides should Hupeh and Hunan. Its publication raised him at once into withdraw their troops, the king being advised to engage officers eminence. He demonstrated seriatim the objections to the of a third state to put his army on such a footing as would maintreaty, chief of which was that, under guise of trading facilities, tain order, and each undertook to give the other notice, should it it opened a way for the military aggression of Russia from the be found necessary to send troops again. In this way a modus west, and he wound up with declaring, “ If we do riot alter this vivendi was established which lasted till the events which Pre" treaty we are not worthy to be called a nation. _ Prince Chun, ceded the outbreak of war in 1894. Chinese influence continued the emperor’s father, came into prominence at this juncture as an predominant, but the unhappy kingdom was constantly disturbed advocate for war, and under these combined influences the un- by^faction. ^ glance briefly at the domestic affairs of China fortunate Chung-how was tried and condemned to death (bra March 1880). For some months warlike preparations went on, during the period 1875-82. The years 1877-78 were marked by a and the outbreak of hostilities was imminent. In the end calmer famine in Shansi and Shantung, which for duration and intensity counsels prevailed ; the foreign ministers interceded iox Churig- has probably never been equalled. For two successive seasons how, and he was first reprieved and finally released. Li Hung- the crops failed. The population affected numbered 30 to 40 Chang, though he had been one of the first to raise the storm, millions, the districts lay far from the coast, there was no water became alarmed at the near prospect of war, for which he well communication, and the roads were unfit for wheeled vehicles. knew China was unprepared, and threw m his voice with Prince Transport broke down, pack animals were not to be had, and Rung on the side of peace. A visit fiom General Gordon, and sheer starvation stared the unfortunate people m the face. It the sound, though probably unpalatable, advice which he gave, was computed that 12 or 13 millions perished. It was hoped weighed in the same direction. It was decided to send the that this lamentable loss of life, due mainly to defective comMarquis Tseng, who in the meantime had become minister in munications, would induce the Chinese Government to listen to London, to Russia to negotiate a new treaty. With more adroit- proposals for railway construction, but even this argument had ness he avoided his predecessor’s mistakes, and produced a treaty no effect. The fate of the experimental line at Shanghai has been which, though not very materially different from the old inas- already mentioned. The Russian scare had, however, taught much as it still left Russia in possession of part of the 111 valley, the Chinese the value of telegraphs, and in 1881 the first line pleased everybody, and was universally accepted. This was rati- was laid from Tientsin to Shanghai. Further construction was fied 19th August 1881. The Chinese Government could now con- continued without intermission from this date. A beginning template with satisfaction the complete recovery of the whole also was made in naval affairs. The arsenal at Foochow was extensive dominions which had at anytime owned the imperial turning out small composite gunboats, a training ship was sway. The regions directly administered by the officers of the bought and put under the command of a British officer. emperor extended from the borders of Siberia on the north to Several armoured cruisers were ordered from Armstrong, and Annam and Burma on the south, and from the Pacific Ocean on some progress was made with the fortifications of Port Art ur the east to Kashgar and Yarkand on the west. But even that did and Wei-hai-wei. Forts were also built and guns mounted at not complete the tale, for outside these boundaries there was a Foochow, Shanghai, Canton, and other vulnerable points. Money fringe of tributary nations which still kept up the ancient forms for these purposes was abundantly supplied by the customs duties of allegiance, and which more or less acknowledged the dominion on foreign trade, and China had learnt that at need she could of the central kingdom. As most of China’s subsequent mis- borrow from the foreign banks on the security of this revenue. fortunes have been in connexion with one or other of these tribu- In all the elements of material strength she had grown enormously tary states, a brief notice may here be permitted of the actual within the previous ten years, and her prestige had grown even, relationship subsisting at this date. The principal tributary more, for she was believed to be very much stronger than she nations then were Korea, Liuchiu, Annam, Burma, and Nepaul. The dynastic records enumerate several others, including even In'lSSl the senior regent, the empress Tsu An, was carried off England, Lord Macartney’s mission of 1793 having been gravely de- bv a sudden attack of heart disease, and the empress Tsu Tsi scribed as bringing tribute, but these were more or less accidental. remained in undivided possession of the supreme power during The tie which bound these states to their suzerain was of the the remainder of the emperor Kwang Su s minority. Li Hungloosest description. China accepted their homage with calm Chano1 firmly established at Tientsin, within easy reach of the superiority, but conceived herself to be under no reciprocal obliga- capital, as viceroy of the home province of Chihli and superintion. It was usual for the kings, on succession to seek investi- tendent of northern trade, enjoyed a larger share of his imperial ture which consisted in the grant of a patent and a seal, but even mistress’s favour than is often granted by the ruling Manchus to that was not invariably insisted on. In any case, it was no part officials of Chinese birth, and in all the graver questions of foreign . of the duty of China to keep the king on his throne. If his sub- policy his advice was generally decisive. iects chose to depose him and set up another, they might do so While the disputes with Japan were still going on regardingand she received a successful usurper and bestowed a new patent Korea China found herself involved in a more serious quarrel in. and a new seal with the same nonchalance as she had manifested respect of another tributary state which lay on the Tongm to his predecessor This happened more than once m Annam. frontier. By a treaty made between France king and slch” aS the .ttin.de Kick Chi... .till maintained v,hen southern and Annam in 1874, the Red river or Songkoi which, foreign nations first began to come mto contact with these rising in south-western China, flows through the HanoL tributary states She did not recognize that the position of province of Tongking, was opened to trade together with the cities suzemin involved responsibilities as well as rights, and to this non-