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is so vital a feature of the government of China, that a made to check it, but with indifferent success. The evil, short notice of the public examinations whereby the ranks however, is not altogether unmixed, as it has admitted into are recruited may not be out of place. As a general rule the service a number of men who are free from that bigoted students preparing for the public examination read with adherence to Confucian doctrine which characterizes the private tutors. There are neither high schools nor uni- literary classes, and more in touch with modern progress. versities where a regular training can be got. In most of All candidates who thus succeed, whether by examination, recommendation, or purchase, in entering the official ranks the provincial capitals, and at some other places, there are indeed institutions termed colleges, supported to a small are then eligible for active employment, but as the number extent from public funds, where advanced students can of candidates is far in excess of the number of appointments prosecute their studies, and where both students and tutors a period of weary waiting ensues. A few of the best receive a small stipend, but they hardly count as factors in scholars get admitted at once into the Hanlin college, or the national education. The work is done by private tutors into one or other of the boards at Peking. The rest are who, on the other hand, are plentiful and cheap. After a drafted off in batches to the various provinces to await series of preliminary trials the student obtains his first their turn for appointment as vacancies occur. During qualification by examination held before the literary this period of waiting they are termed “ expectants,” and chancellor in the prefecture to which he belongs. This is draw no regular pay. Occasional service, however, falls in termed the Siutsai, or licentiate’s degree, and in itself their way, as when they are commissioned for special duty confers no claim to office, but is merely a qualification to in outlying districts, which they perform as Wei yuens, or enter for the higher examinations. The number of licentiate deputies of the regular officials. The period of expectancy degrees to be given is, however, strictly limited ; those who may be abridged by recommendation or purchase, and it is have failed to get in are set back to try again, which they generally supposed that this last lever must invariably be may do as often as they please. There is no limit of resorted to to secure any lucrative local appointment. A age. Those selected next proceed to the great examination poor but promising official is often, it is said, financed held at the capital of each province, once in three years, by a syndicate of relations and friends, who look to recoup before examiners sent from Peking for the purpose. Here themselves out of the illegal, but customary perquisites again the number who pass are strictly limited. Out of which attach to the post. The appointments to the junior 10,000 or 12,000 competitors only some 300 or 350 can provincial posts are usually left to the provincial Governobtain degrees. The others, as before, must go back and ment, but the central Government can always interfere try again. This degree, termed C/m jen, or provincial directly. Appointments to the lucrative posts of customs graduate, is the first substantial reward of the student’s taotai at the treaty ports are usually made direct from ambition, and of itself, without more, qualifies for the Peking, and the officer selected is not necessarily nor public service, though it does not immediately nor neces- usually from the provincial staff. It would perhaps be sarily lead to active employment. The third and final safe to say that this appointment is always the result of a examination takes place at Peking, and is open to provincial pecuniary arrangement of greater or less magnitude. graduates from all parts of the empire. About 6000 comReligion. —As stated in the ninth edition (v. 671), the three prinpetitors enter for this final test, which is held triennially, cipal religions of China are Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. these should he added ancestor - worship, which is practised of whom 325 to 350 succeed in obtaining the degree of To by all classes, and which as a guiding principle of Tsin shih, or metropolitan graduate. These are the finally universally life has a more potent influence over the Chinaman than any selected men who in due course become the officials and other doctrine. It may be regarded as a branch of Confucianism. administrators of the empire. Several other doors are, It did not, indeed, originate with that philosopher, having been however, open by which admission to the ranks of bureau- practised long before he flourished, but the duty was strongly inculcated by him. He enjoined also the due observance of the cracy can be obtained. In the first place, to encourage ritual prescribed by the state for the worship of all recognized scholars to persevere, a certain number of those who fail to deities, including the worship of heaven and earth by the reach the chu jen, or second degree, are allowed, as a reward Emperor, and the worship by state officials of local divinities deceased worthies who may from time to time have been of repeated efforts, to get into a special class from^ which and by imperial decree. Confucianism has no priesthood. selection for office may be made. Further, the Govern- canonized The acts of worship are performed by the Emperor in person, by ment reserves to itself the right to nominate the sons and the officials, and by the head of every household, each acting grandsons of distinguished deceased public servants without within his own prescribed sphere. But Confucianism has always examination. And, lastly, by a system of “ recommenda- been a tolerant and non-aggressive religion. While enjoining the of ancestor-worship, and the observance of the pretion,” young men from the institution termed the Im- performance scribed formalities to recognized deities, it does not at all object to perial Academy, or from the Manchu schools, or men who devotion being paid to other possible divinities, so long as the have served as clerks in the boards, may be put on the roster followers do not profess corrupt and heterodox doctrine. Ihe line for substantive appointment. But over and above the of division between wdiat is orthodox and heterodox is moie political religious. Any cult which preaches a doctrine subversive of foregoing, which are all deemed fair and legitimate methods than the fundamental and sacred principles of the constitution is heteroof entering the public service, the necessities of the Chinese dox and unlawful, and its practice renders the followers liable to Government have from time to time compelled it to throw severe penalties as savouring of rebellion. But mere belief in gods open a still wider door, namely, admission by purchase. not recognized by the state is harmless, so long as it does not lead action likely to be subversive of the existing order of things. During the Taiping rebellion, when the Government was at to Thus a Confucianist may at the same time be a Buddhist or a its wits’ end for money, formal sanction was given to what Taoist, or he may be all three. The three religions are not mutuhad previously been only intermittently resorted to, and ally exclusive, but run into one another, and hence it is impossible since then immense sums of money haVe been received by to give any statistics of the respective numbers of each The religion was long deemed heterodox, but since the conthe sale of patents of rank, either to secure admission to Christian clusion of the treaties it has officially been proclaimed to be peroffice, or more rapid promotion of those already employed. missible. A Confucianist might now, from the Chinese point of As a’ result of this policy, the country has been saddled view, be also a Christian, and probably many would become so if with thousands of titular officials far in excess of the number the Christian religion would accept them on these terms. One of powerful congregations of the Roman Catholic Church was in of appointments to be given away. The more deserving the the last century prepared to do so, at least it was prepared to allow men are thus kept waiting for years, while inferior and less converts to continue ancestor-worship. The proposal was overcapable officials are pushed ahead, because they have money ruled by the Pope, but had it been permitted there would possibly wherewith to bribe their way. The evils of the purchase have been by this time as many nominal Christians in China as system are recognized, and efforts from time to time are there are professors of Buddhism, which was itself a foreign religion.