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CHINA

The central Government always wields the power of removing or degrading a recalcitrant governor, and no case has been known where such an order was not promptly obeyed. But the central Government being composed of officials, stand by their order, and are extremely reluctant to issue such a command, especially at the bidding of a foreign Power. Generally the opinion of the governors and viceroys has great weight with the central Government, and probably no great measure of policy would be entered upon without their advice and concurrence. The Boxer troubles and the flight of the court from Peking on the approach of the foreign expeditionary force (Aug. 1900) shook the whole governmental fabric of the Chinese Empire. This and the following sections must therefore be taken as representing the normal condition of things before the outbreak of disturbances in 1900. Central Administration.—TYlq following are the principal departments of the central Government:— 1. The Grand Secretariat (JVeiko), consisting of four grand secretaries and two assistant grand secretaries, half of whom, according to a general rule applicable to nearly all the high offices in Peking, must be Manchu and half Chinese. This was originally the Supreme Council of the empire, but under the present dynasty it has ceased to be of active importance. It constitutes the Imperial Chancery or Court of Archives, and admission to its ranks confers the highest distinction attainable by Chinese officials, though with functions that are almost purely nominal. Members of the Grand Secretariat are distinguished by the honorary title of Chung-tang. The most distinguished viceroys are usually advanced to the dignity of grand secretary while continuing to occupy their posts in the provinces. 2. Grand Council {Chun Chi Chu).—This department, the actual Privy Council of the sovereign, in whose presence its members daily transact the business of the state, is composed of a small knot of men holding various high offices in the Government boards at Peking. The number is undetermined, but at present it is five. The literal meaning of the Chinese name Chun Chi Chu is “place of plans for the army,” and the institution derives its name from the practice established by the early emperors of the dynasty of treating public affairs on the footing of a military council. The usual time of transacting business is, in accordance with Chinese custom, from 4 to 6 A.M. 3. Tsung-Li-Yamen.—This, the best known of all the Chinese departments, was created after the Anglo-Chinese war in 1860 as a Board for Foreign Affairs. Previously to that war, which established the right of foreign Powers to have their representatives in Peking, all foreign business was transacted by one of the provincial viceroys, chiefly the viceroy of Canton. The only department at Peking which dealt specially with foreign affairs was the Li Fan Yuen, or Board of Control for the dependencies, which regulated the affairs of Mongolia, Tibet, and the tributary states generally. With the advent of formally accredited ambassadors from the European Powers something more than this was required, and a special board was appointed to discuss and if possible settle all questions with the foreign envoys. The number was originally four, with Prince Kung, a brother of the late Emperor Hsien Feng at their head. It has since been raised to ten, another prince of the blood, Prince Ching, being now president. The members are spoken of collectively as the prince and ministers. For a long time the board had no real power, and was looked on rather as a buffer between the foreign envoys and the real Government. The importance of foreign affairs, however, especially since the Japanese war, has identified the Yamen more with the

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Grand Council, several of the most prominent men being members of both. At the same time that the Tsung-LiYamen was created two important offices were established in the provinces for dealing with foreign commercial questions, viz., the Superintendencies of Trade for the northern and southern ports, the former being given to the governor-general of Chihli, and the latter to the governorgeneral at Nanking. Li Hung-Chang held the former for a number of years, and this position, combined with his personal talents and his influence at court, made him practically minister for foreign affairs over the heads of the Tsung-Li-Yamen. 4. The six Boards {Lhi Pu). — The administrative work of the Chinese Government is divided between six departments termed boards, viz., the Board of Civil Office, the Board of Revenue, the Board of Ceremonies, the Board of War, the Board of Punishment, and the Board of Works. Each board has two presidents and four vice-presidents, half being Manchu and half Chinese. The official constitution of each is practically the same. They control each in its own sphere, the nature of which is sufficiently indicated by the names, the execution of that system of minute regulation for the conduct of public business which is the special function of the central Government. The presidents and vice-presidents of the boards, together with the heads of the censorate and the Hanlin college, may be said to constitute the central Government. They have not all an equal voice in the decisions of questionsof state, but they are all qualified to tender advice to the sovereign, and it is from their number that the smaller executive councils above mentioned, viz., the Chun Chi Chu and the Tsung-Li-Yamen, are selected. 5. The Censorate {TuCha Yuen).—This is an institution peculiar to China. As the Emperor is condemned to live in seclusion, and has no means of learning what may be going on in the various parts of his dominions, the constitution endeavours to supply a remedy by providing a paid body of men whose duty it is to keep him informed of all facts affecting the welfare of the people and the conduct of Government, and in particular to keep an eye on the malfeasance of his officers. These men are termed Yu shih,. generally translated censors. There are fifty-six of them, divided into fifteen divisions, each division taking a particular province or area, so as to embrace the whole eighteen provinces, besides one metropolitan division. With the growth of a native press this institution loses its raison d’etre, and will probably fall into desuetude. It seems at the present moment to be more powerful for mischief than for good. 6. The Hanlin College {Hanlin Yuen).—The only other institution of the metropolitan administration that need be noticed is the Hanlin College, and this chiefly because the heads of the college, who are presumably the most eminent scholars of the empire, have the right of advising the throne on all public affairs, and are eligible as members of the Grand Council, or of the Tsung-Li-Yamen. In other respects its functions are purely literary. The Chinese set fire to it during the fighting in Peking in June 1900 in the hope of burning out the adjoining British Legation. The whole of the valuable library, containing some of the most ancient manuscripts in the world, was destroyed. Provincial Administration.—No change has been made in the provincial administration since the article in the ninth edition of this work was written, where its organization is briefly described {Ency. Brit. v. 668). The extension of the telegraph system and the growth of native newspapers enable the central Government to take a more active supervision in provincial affairs than it has hitherto been wont to do. Civil Service ; how recruited.—The bureaucratic element-