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CHINA

[government

his facts on such information as the courtiers and high officers of state permit to reach him, and he is further dependent for the execution of his decrees on such means as these same officers supply him with. Though in theory he can command the services and money of his subjects to an unlimited extent, yet the crown as such has no revenues peculiarly its own. It is dependent for the pay of the troops, as well as for the ordinary expenses of the imperial household, on contributions levied through the high officials on the several provinces, and without their concurrence and co-operation nothing can be done. The power of the purse and the power of the sword are thus exercised mediately through the instruments recognized by the constitution, and it thus comes about that the autocratic power is in practice transferred to the general body of high functionaries, or to that clique of them who for the time being have the ear of the Emperor, and who are united enough and powerful enough to impose their will on the others. The high functionaries of state who thus really wield the supreme power are almost without exception civil officials who have risen from the ranks of the people. There is no hereditary aristocracy in the European sense of the term. Hereditary rank is indeed bestowed on a few public servants usually for a limited number of hves, and there are among the descendants of the Manchu chie tains, who helped to found the dynasty, a few who hold titles of nobility, but in either case the rank per se gives Total for eighteen them no status in the constitution. Among the princes of provinces. . i 1,353,200 377,900,000 34 362,310 12,500,000 Manchuria. the blood there are a small number who hold high office and take an important part in the Government, such as 1,715,510 J 390,400,000 the late Prince Kung and Prince Ching, the former and the present head of the Tsung-Li-Yamen, but their right to Constitution and Government.—The Government of have a voice in public affairs is in virtue of their holding China is in theory an absolute monarchy. The Emperor office, not in virtue of their nobility. Practically all the is the sole and supreme head of the state. His will is high officials who now constitute the Government of China absolute alike in the highest affairs of state and m the have risen through the junior ranks of the civil service, humblest details of private life. The highest form of and obtained their high position as the reward—so it must legislation is an imperial decree, whether promulgated in be presumed—of long and distinguished public service. general terms or to meet a special case. In either form it The functions of Government are divided between (a) is the law of the land, and no privilege or prescriptive right the central administration and (V) the provincial admincan be pleaded against it. All officers of state all judges istration. The empire proper is divided into eighteen proand magistrates, hold their offices entirely at the imperial vincial governments, each of which has a complete adminpleasure. They can be dismissed, degraded, punished with- istrative machinery of its own, and possesses a quasiout reason assigned, and without form of trial—even with- independence in financial and military affairs. In some out knowing by whom or of what they are accused T ere cases two or three are grouped together under a governorare no constitutional checks upon the arbitrary acts of the general, often called a viceroy, without, however, affecting monarch. He is provided with an advisory council, but he their independent status. At the head of each province is is not bound by their advice, nor_ need he pretend that he a governor, whose main functions are to keep the peace is acting by and with their advice and concurrence. In and preserve order, to collect the taxes, to raise and pay his practice, however, this arbitrary power is tempered m own troops, pay the salaries of the civil service, remit the several ways. Firstly, although the constitution confers regulation quota of the taxes m money and m kind, as the this absolute and unchecked power on the Emperor, it is case may be, to Peking, and to find and remit the extra not for his gratification but that he may exercise it for the “squeezes” which the needs of the central Government may good of his people. He rules by divine authority, and demand. If he does all that and things go smoothly, the as the vice-regent of Heaven upon earth. _ If he rules central Government does not interfere with him. e corruptly or unjustly Heaven will send disasters and renders pro formd accounts to the Board of Revenue at calamity on the people as a reproof; if the rule becomes Peking but no effective scrutiny is maintained. He is tyrannical Heaven may withdraw its favour entirely, and not responsible for disorder beyond his own border, nor then rebellion may be justified. Though treason and re- bound to send military aid to his neighbours even against bellion are ordinarily the most heinous of crimes, yet foreign invasion. The functions of the central Governhistory applauds a successful revolt as evidence of the ment on the other hand, are mostly confined to checking iniquities of the fallen dynasty. The Manchu dynasty and registering the acts of the provincial governments, and came to the throne as foreign conquerors, nevertheless they seeing that things are done in conformity with precedent have adopted this theory, and base their right to rule, not and with established rules. If the central authorities on the power of the sword, but on divine approval. On take the initiative, and issue orders, as they occasionally are this moral ground they claim the obedience of their sub- forced to do, under foreign pressure, it by no means follows jects, and submit themselves to the corresponding obliga- that they will be carried out. The orders, if unwelcome, tions. A more effective check upon the caprice of the are not directly disobeyed, but rather ignored, or specious Emperor, however, is the second which we will notice, pleas are put forward, showing the difficulty or _ impossinamely, that the constitution prescribes that the Emperor bility of carrying them out at that particular juncture. shall live in seclusion. He is consequently dependent for

the population from year to year between 1651 and 1860. These tables show a gradual rise, though with many fluctuations, up till 1851, when the total population is stated to be 432 millions. From that point it decreases till 1860, when it is put down at only 261 millions, ihe following table gives as nearly as can be ascertained the actual population at the present time : Population Area per Square Population. Square Provinces. Mile. Miles. 388 53,000 20,600,000 Anhwei 334 34.700 11,600,000 Chekiang 30 57.800 17,900,000 Chihli. 568 41.300 23,500,000 Fuhkien 360 61.300 22,100,000 Honan 295 74,400 21,000,000 Hunan 508 65.900 33,500,000 Hupeh 72 9,400,000 131,000 Kansuh 355 67.500 24,000,000 Kiangsi 568 36.900 25,000,000 Kiangsu 63 5,100,000 80,100 Kwangsi 378 79.300 30,000,000 Kwangtung 80 4,800,000 58.800 Kweichow 177 66.700 11,800,000 Shansi 649 55.500 36,000,000 Shantung 112 8,300,000 74,000 Shensi 418 160,000 67,100,000 Szechuen 40 6,200,000 155,000 Yunnan