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 geography]

CHINA

vertical the banks fall in, in perpendicular slabs, leaving a vertical wall on each side, often hundreds of feet in height. This is always the case in the newly-formed small affluents of the larger streams, and even in the older rivers the valley never slopes gradually down to the river bed, but approaches by a series of terraces, each backed by a vertical wall separating it from the next above. The consequence of this is that communication in a loess-covered country is extremely difficult. Seen from a distance, the valley may present a gentle undulating appearance, but as it is approached it shows a perfect labyrinth of deep cuts with perpendicular walls, among which the traveller without a guide may wander indefinitely, vainly seeking an exit. The loess soil is extremely favourable to agriculture. It bears excellent crops, and not merely on the lower grounds, but at altitudes of 6000 and 8000 feet. Wherever loess is found the peasant can live and thrive. Only one thing is essential, and that is the annual rainfall. As no artificial irrigation is possible, if the rain fails the crops must necessarily fail. Thus seasons of great famine alternate with seasons of great plenty. It appears, also, that the soil needs little or no manuring, and very little tillage. From its extremely friable nature the soil is easily broken up, and thus a less amount of labour is required than in other parts. The extreme porosity of the soil probably also accounts for the length of time it will go on bearing crops without becoming exhausted. The rainfall penetrating deeply into the soil in the absence of stratification, comes into contact with the moisture retained below, which holds in solution whatever inorganic salts the soil may contain, and thus the vegetation has an indefinite store to draw upon. Another peculiarity of loess in China is that it lends itself readily to the excavation of dwellings for the people. In many places whole villages live in cave dwellings dug out in the vertical wall of loess. They construct spiral staircases, selecting places where the ground is firm, and excavate endless chambers and recesses which are said to be very comfortable and salubrious dwellings. With respect to its origin, Baron von Richthofen is of opinion that loess is a subaerial formation. The entire absence of stratification, except in what he calls regenerated loess, i.e., original loess washed down and deposited in lake bottoms, and the entire absence of marine or freshwater shells, forbid the supposition that it is an aqueous deposit. The only other agency that can be suggested is air currents combined with rainfall. The latter carries down certain debris, while the former carries the fine dust and sand from the steppes among the herbaceous vegetation, where it is retained and mixed with the decaying leaves and roots. No stratification can take place, and any approach to it will be completely effaced by the roots which descend vertically, and are probably the chief agents in producing the vertical cleavage. Meteorology.—The figures in the Table are taken from the observations recorded at the French mission station at Shanghai. They give the average of eight years’

January February March April May June July August September October. November December

Minimum Maximum Temperature Temperature Fahr. Fahr. 17-8 57-2 24-3 61-0 30-2 75‘9 36 "7 84-2 46-9 8957-7 92-8 67-8 97-2 65-3 95'5 55-8 9040-1 82-6 28-9 72-7 21-2 65-3

Rainfall, Inches. 2-27 2-88 2327-86 3452'84 1-96 1-39

19

observations. The absolute maximum and minimum temperatures during the period were 102° and 12-2° respectively. Climate.—The climate of Shanghai, which is that of the lower Yangtse valley generally, is on the whole favourable. The three months from July to September are somewhat trying to Europeans. The temperature is high and the air is often laden with moisture. The prevailing winds during this season are south-easterly, caused by heat and the ascending current of air over the sandy deserts of central Asia, thus drawing in a current from the Pacific Ocean. In the winter the converse takes place, and the prevailing winds are north and north-west, which are cold and dry. During the eight or nine months from October to May the climate is bracing and enjoyable. The rainfall is moderate and regular, and a failure of the crops owing to prolonged droughts is very rare. Farther north, however, this is not the case. The provinces of Shantung and Shansi are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of drought, with consequent severe famines such as that of 1877-78, when many millions died for sheer want of food. In these regions the air is generally extremely dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on excessive radiation are much greater than farther south. Dust storms are also prevalent during the spring months. In the southern and south-western provinces^ especially Szechuen, the rainfall is much greater than that above recorded, and the summer heat, though not higher as a maximum than that of Shanghai, is naturally more prolonged and more enervating. But as a whole the climate of China compares favourably with that of any other part of the world lying between the same parallels of latitude. The greater part of it is what may be called a White Man’s land, and in no part is it specially trying for Europeans. Certain areas of the province of Yunnan have a reputation among Chinese for unhealthiness, being mostly those lying at the bottom of deep valleys of the Mekong and Salween rivers, where malarial fever abounds, and it may be mentioned that certain areas in this province are the home of the bubonic plague, an epidemic which has recently been attracting so much attention. On the other hand, the plateaus of Yunnan, and notably the plain of Talifu, have the reputation of an excellent climate, the latter, according to Indian travellers, comparing favourably with Kashmir. Area and Population.—The only change in area since 1875 is the annexation to Japan of the island of Formosa, with a population of about 2,000,000. In regard to population no accurate statistics are yet forthcoming. The Chinese Government continues from time to time to print in the Peking Gazette returns of the population made by one or other of the various provincial authorities, but, so far as is known, no systematic attempt has been made to take a general census on European principles. The method of numeration is to count the households, and from that to make a return of the total inhabitants of each province. As every province is divided for administrative purposes into so many hsien or districts, and every district into so many hundreds, there would be no great difficulty, as the population is nearly all rural and taxpaying, in obtaining fairly accurate returns if sufficient care were taken. It does not appear, however, that much 8 care is taken. The standing orders are that the returns 5 2 are to be made every three years, but as no8 allowance is made to meet the expenses, it is probable5 that in the majority of cases the last return is taken, 6 and a round sum is added or subtracted to meet the supposed facts of 7 7 the case. Mr E. H. Parker published in the number of the Statistical Society’s Journal for March 1899 a series of tables translated from Chinese records, giving