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CYPRUS —CYTOLOGY

is characteristic or noteworthy; little attention has been paid to the sequence of style. _ . Of the Byzantine period little remains hut 1 the ruins of the castles of St Hilarion, 2Bulfavento, and Kantara,3 a magnificent series of gold ornaments and some silver plate, found near Kerynia in 1883 and 1897 respectively. Christian tombs usually contain nothing of value. ) )( The Frank conquest is represented by the “Crusaders tower at Kolossi, and the church of St Nicholas at Nicosia ; and, later, by masterpieces of a French Gothic style, such as the. church (mosque) of St Sophia, and other churches at Nicosia ; the cathedral (mosque) and others at Famagusta, and the monastery of Bella Pais ; as well as by domestic architecture at Nicosia and elsewhere, and by a rich r series of inscribed tombstones in the4 churches. The elaborate w ood-carvings of the church at Aschelia belong to the 15th century, and the “miraculous” picture at the monastery of Kykkou apparently to the 16th. The architecture of the Renaissance is illustrated by fortifications and remains of public buildings (now being quarried away) at Famagusta, by walls, gates, and domestic buildings at Nicosia, and by forts at Kerynia, Limasol, and elsewhere. The Turks and English have added little, and destroyed much, converting churches into mosques and grain-stores, and quarrying the buildings and walls of Famagusta. There is an iron bridge over the Pedias river, and a harbour at Famagusta has been proposed. (j. L. M.) Cyprus, Church of.—The Church of Cyprus is in communion and in doctrinal agreement with the other Orthodox Churches of the East (see Orthodox Eastern Church), but is independent (anroKe^aXos) and subject to no patriarch. This position it has always claimed (see, however, W. Bright, Notes on the Canons, on Ephesus 8). At any rate, its independence “by ancient custom” was recognized, as against the claims of the patriarch of Antioch, by the Council of Ephesus, a.d. 431, by an edict of the Emperor Zeno (to whom the church had sent a cogent argument on its own behalf, the alleged body of its reputed founder St Barnabas, then just discovered at Salamis), and by the Trullan Council in 692. Attempts have been made subsequently by the patriarchs of Antioch to claim authority over it, the last as recently as 1600 ; but they came to nothing. And excepting for the period during which Cyprus was in the hands of the Lusignans and the Venetian Bepublic (1193-1571), the Church has never lost its independence. It receives the holy ointment (fxvpov) from without, till 1860 from Antioch and subsequently from Constantinople, but this is a matter of courtesy and not of right. Of old there were some twenty sees in the island. The bishop of the capital, Salamis or Constantia, was constituted metropolitan by Zeno, with the title “ archbishop of all Cyprus,” enlarged subsequently into “archbishop of Justiniana Nova and of all Cyprus,” after an enforced expatriation to Justinianopolis in 688. Zeno also gave him the unique privileges of wearing and signing his name in the imperial purple, &c., which are still preserved. A Latin hierarchy was set up in 1196 (an archbishop at Nicosia with suffragans at Limasol, Paphos, and Famagusta), and the Greek bishops were made to minister to their flocks in subjection to it. The sees were forcibly reduced to four, the archbishopric was ostensibly abolished, and the bishops were compelled to do homage and swear fealty to the Latin Church. This bondage ceased at the conquest of the island by the Turks : the Latin hierarchy disappeared (the cathedral at Nicosia is now used as a mosque), and the native church emerged into comparative freedom. In 1821, it is true, all the bishops and many of their flock were put to death by way of discouraging sympathies with the Greeks; but successors were soon consecrated, by bishops sent from Antioch at the request 1 2 3 4

Cf. Handbook to Cyprus, 1901, p. 7. Cyprus Museum ; cf. Myres, Reliquary, &c., March 1898. British Museum ; cf. Dalton, Archceologia, Ivii. p. 159. Hogarth, Devia Cypria, pp. 42-4. For a full list cf. Handbook to Cyprus, 1901, pp. 7-8.

of the patriarch of Constantinople, and on the whole the Church has prospered. The bishops-elect required the berat of the Sultan ; but having received this, they enjoyed no little civil importance. Since 1878 the berat has not been given, and the bishops are less influential. The suppressed sees have never been restored, but the four which survive (now known as Nicosia, Paphos, Kition, and Kyrenia) are of metropolitan rank, so that the archbishop,, whose headquarters, first at Salamis, then at Famagusta, are now at Nicosia, is a primate amongst metropolitans. There are several monasteries dating from the 11th century and onwards; also an archiepiscopal school at Nicosia, founded in 1812 and raised to the status of a “gymnasion” in 1893; and a high school for girls. But there, is no theological seminary, and the ignorance of the clergy is great. Still, there are signs of progress, especially since the island passed into British hands; and if the great revenues of the Church can be redistributed and better administered, excellent results will doubtless follow. Authorities.-—Ph. Georgiou. Ei<5i)<ms 'lo-Topucal wepl tt)s ’E/c/cAijertas rijs Kvirpov. Athens, 1875.—K. Kouriokurineos. (Archbishop of Cyprus). 'laropia XPOV0^°'YLKV Ths vrjcrov Ktnrpov. Venice, 1788.—de Mas Latrie. Histoire de Vile de Chypre sous les Princes de la Maison de Lusignan. Paris 1852 f.—H. T. F. Duckworth. The Church of Cyprus. London, 1900.—J. Hackett. History of the Orthodox Church of Cyprus. 1901. (w. E. Co.) Cytology (Vegetable).—Remarkable progress has been made of late years in our knowledge of minute cell structure, or Cytology, around which so much of the biological research of the present time revolves, and upon which the ultimate solution of important problems in physiology depends. This has been due' largely to the application of the ribbon section-cutting; microtome to histological research, to more refined methods of fixing, staining, and mounting, and to theimmense improvements made in optical instruments. Among the more important subjects in which progress, has been made are the minute structure of protoplasm;; the phenomena of nuclear division; the structure and development of the sexual cells and germ-nuclei; the phenomena of fertilization ; the structure and development of the cell-wall, starch-grains, and plastids; the protoplasmic connexions between the cells; and the structure and development of sieve-tubes and laticiferous tissue. But although much has been accomplished, we are still far from a complete understanding of minute cell-structure, and, unfortunately, the brilliant results which have been obtained by the investigation of dead stained tissues have so dominated the attention of students during this period that the living cell has been neglected, and doubt has, in consequence, been cast upon some of the results obtained. It is probable, therefore, that in the future any substantial advance in our knowledge will come, not from the exclusive study either of dead or living cells, but from a judicious correlation of observations upon both. The contents of a living cell are collectively termed protoplasm. This consists of a semi-fluid granular substance, called the cytoplasm, one or more nuclei, and sometimes centrospheres or centrosomes, and plastids. Cells from different parts of a plant differ very much in their cell-contents. Young cells are often full of cytoplasm; old cells generally contain a large vacuole or vacuoles, and may have only a thin, almost invisible, layer of cytoplasm on their walls. Others contain chlorophyll-grains or chromatophores, starch - grains, or oilglobules. Very little is known of the finer structure of the cytoplasm of a vegetable cell. When observed under the microscope it is usually seen to consist of a homogeneous substance containing numerous granules of various, sizes, and vacuoles, which are probably full of a watery