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when the monasteries were the great schools of learning and devotion, now puts a premium on ignorance, and is disastrous to the church. The patriarch is chosen by an assembly of bishops and elders. The candidate is brought in chains from the desert, and, if only in monk’s orders is passed through the higher grades except that of bishop. The patriarch’s seat was transferred some time after the Arab conquest from Alexandria to the fortress town of Babylon (Old Cairo), and in modern times it was shifted to Cairo proper. The other orders and offices in the church are metropolitan, bishop, chief priest, priest, archdeacon, deacon, reader, and monk. The number of bishoprics in ancient times was very large—Athanasius says nearly 100. At present there remain ten in Egypt, one at Khartum, and three in Abyssinia. The numerous remaining churches in Egypt but faintly represent the vast number standing in ancient times. says that he found Later, 10,000in monks in Buildings, Bufinus 616, the one reg[on 0f Arsinoe. Persians are described as destroying 600 monasteries near Alexandria. Abd Salih (12th century) gives a list of churches surviving in his day, and their number is astonishing. The earliest were cut out of rocks and caverns. In the days of Constantine and Justinian basilicas of great splendour were built, such as the church of St Mark at Alexandria and the Red Monastery in Upper Egypt. This type of architecture permanently influenced Coptic builders, but there prevailed also a type, probably native in origin, though possessing Byzantine features, such as the domed roofing. There is no church now standing which bears any trace of the fine glass mosaics which once adorned the basilicas, nor is there any example of a welldefined cruciform ground-plan. But the use of the dome by Coptic architects is almost universal, and nearly every church has at least three domes overshadowing the three altars. The domes are sometimes lighted by small windows, but the walls are windowless, and the churches consequently gloomy. Among the most interesting churches are those of Old Cairo, those in the Wadi Natrfin, and the Red and White Monasteries. Every church has three altars at the eastern end in three contiguous chapels. The central division is called the haikal or sanctuary, which is always divided Church from the choir by a fixed partition or screen fittings. with a small arched doorway closed by double doors. This resembles the Greek iconostasis. Haikal screen and choir screen are often sumptuously carved and inlaid. A marble basin for the mandatum in the nave, and an epiphany tank at the west are common features. The altar is usually built of brick or stone, hollow within, and having an opening to the interior. A wooden altarslab covered with crosses, &c., lies in a rectangular depression on the surface, and it is used in case of need as a portable altar. Chalice and paten, ewer and basin, crewet and chrismatory, are found as in the western churches. The aster consists of two crossed half-hoops of silver and is used to place over the wafer. The flabellum is used, though now rarely made of precious metal. Some examples of silver-cased textus now remaining are very fine. Every church possesses thuribles—the use of incense being universal and frequent—and diadems for the marriage service. The use of church bells is forbidden by the Moslems, except in the desert, and church music consists merely of cymbals and triangles which accompany the chaunting. The sacramental wine is usually made from raisins, but the juice must be fermented. Churches even in Cairo Rites have a press for crushing the raisins. The and cere- eucharistic bread is baked in an oven built near monies. the sanctuary. The wafer is a small loaf about 3 inches in diameter and 1 inch thick, stamped with the

trisagion and with crosses. Communion must be received fasting. Confession is required, but of late has somewhat fallen into disuse. Laymen receive in both kinds. The wafer being broken into the chalice, crumbs or “pearls” are taken out in a spoon and so administered, as in the Greek rite. Reservation is uncanonical. Renaudot states that it was permitted in cases of great extremity, when the host remained upon the altar with lamps burning and a priest watching, but it is not now practised, and there is no evidence of any such vessel as a pyx in Coptic ritual. Small benedictional crosses belong to each altar, and processional crosses are common. The crucifix is unknown, for while paintings and frescoes abound, graven images are absolutely forbidden. The liturgy is still read in the extinct Coptic language, but the gospel and lessons are also read in the vernacular Arabic. Seven sacraments are recognized— baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, orders, matrimony, and unction of the sick. The chief fasts are those of Advent, of Nineveh, of Heraclius, Lent, and Pentecost. Pilgrimage to Jerusalem is a duty and sometimes a penance. Vestments are a difficult subject, obscured by writers like Renaudot and Denzinger, who found their statements on written evidence without having visited Vestments Egypt. The majority of the Coptic vestments have peculiarities in form and name, not corresponding closely with vestments of western ritual. But the pallium is the symbol of patriarchal office. Cope and chasuble formerly existed, and for both there is pictorial as well as documentary evidence; but the chasuble has disappeared, and the supervestment of the celebrant is now the cope or burnus. The dalmatic remains in use and is often enriched with embroidered figures and texts. The shamlcth and tailasdn are peculiar vestments, something like an amice. The patrashil corresponds to the Greek epitrachelion, and the kamds, or armlets, to epimanikia. The girdle is a liturgical vestment and is worn over the dalmatic. Mitre and pastoral staff are used by bishops, although the mitre is not of western shape and resembles rather a crown, as it is in fact called in Arabic. The whole of the Coptic ritual deserves much fuller study than it has received. Since the 7th century the church has been so isolated as to be little influenced by changes affecting other communions. Consequently it remains in many respects the most ancient monument of primitive rites and ceremonies in Christendom. But centuries of subjection to Moslem rule have much weakened and degraded it. The priesthood are very illpaid and mostly very ignorant. Among the younger Copts, however, there is now a strong reforming party who are anxious to remove the reproach of the clergy by education, remembering the time when the church of Alexandria was as famous for learning as for zeal. They desire also to resist the serious encroachments, of Roman Catholic, American Presbyterian, and other foreign missions upon their ancient faith. Their great need is an enlightened patriarch of strong character, with funds to found a theological college. Authorities.—Wansleb. Histoire de Vltglise d’Alexandrie. Paris, 1677.—Idem. Voyage in Egypt. Paris, 1698.—Renaudot. Historia Patriarcharum Alexandrinorum. Paris, 1713.—Abu Dakn. History, trans. by Sir E. Sadleir. London, 1693. S. C. Malan. Original Documents of the Coptic Church. London, 1874. Denzinger. Ilitus Orientalium. Wirceburg, 1863.— Curzon. Monasteries of the Levant.—Neale. Eastern Church. London, 1847.—Butler. Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt. Oxford, 1884.—Evetts and Butler. Churches and Monasteries of Egypt, by Abu Salih. Oxford, 1895.—AnbLiNEAU. Memoires pour servir d I’histoire de I'figypte Chrttiennc. Paris, 1888-95 ; ana other works. (-A-. J. B.) Copyhold.—Since the publication of the article in the ninth edition of the Ency. Brit, the law relating to the