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COLO M B I A

tonnage of 858,457 tons ; the number cleared in the same year was 1850, with a tonnage of 800,710 tons. In 1898, 266 vessels of, altogether, 441,673 tons entered, and 263 of 442,777 tons cleared at Barranquilla and Sabanilla—more than half the tonnage being British. The shipping belonging to Colombian ports had, in 1898, a total tonnage of 2227 tons. Means of transport for both passengers and freight are confined to a large extent to conveyance by mule or donkey. The so-called roads are little more than bridle tracks. The total length of the railways open to public service in 1899 was only 419 miles; but about 80 additional miles are in course of construction. These railways are in isolated sections, running as a rule from the seaboard to inland towns at different points of the coast. The Panama-Colon line has a length of 48 miles; the CartagenaCalamar line, 65 miles. The Magdalena river forms an important artery of trade. It is navigable for 780 miles ; steamers ascend to La Dorada, 590 miles from Barranquilla; tributaries supply 215 miles more of navigable river, and on these waters 42 steamers, with a total tonnage of 7330 tons, ply regularly. At present the journey from the coast to Bogota requires at least twelve days of continuous travel by rail, steamer, and mule. There are some 8600 miles of telegraph lines, with 448 stations open to the public ; and a telephone system has been established in the principal towns. The republic is connected with the outside world by the cable of the Central and South American Cable Company. The postal service is well organized; in the two years 1896-97 the letters and post-cards conveyed numbered 2,794,069 ; printed papers, 1,233,313 ; other packets, 161,217,—total pieces, 4,188,599. Panama Canal.—The construction of a ship canal, 46 miles in length, across the Isthmus of Panama was in 1881 undertaken by a company which went into liquidation in 1889. A new company, formed in 1894, carried on the work, and their concession was extended to the year 1910, by which time it was estimated the canal and locks might be completed, at a cost of £20,480,000. The total sum raised for the purpose of constructing the canal was 772,545,412 francs by the old company, and 65,000,000 francs by the new company. But when the American Government took up the question of constructing an Isthmian Canal, the position of the Panama Company was necessarily involved. See the articles Canals and Lesseps. Credit and Currency.—The law, passed in 1894, for the redemption of the inconvertible paper currency has not heen carried into effect. The amount in circulation is stated to be 51,000,000 pesos, the value constantly fluctuating, to the injury of trade. In Panama the silver dollar of 25 grammes, ‘835 fine, is the coinage in common -use, but Peruvian silver is also current. The principal banking institutions are the Banco Nacional, the Banco de Colombia, and the Banco de Bogota, besides a number of private banks. The Banco Nacional is exclusively a State bank, and through it the paper money is put in circulation. The metric system of weights and measures is the legal system, but is not customarily in use, except at the Custom House and other Government offices. For ordinary purposes the Spanish pound, of lT02lb avoirdupois ; the arrdba, of 25 ft); and the carga, of 250 lb, are invariably employed. Corn is measured by the fanega. In lineal measurement the vara (80 centimetres) is used. The litre is the standard for liquid measure. Recent History.—The term of office for which President Aquiles Parra had been elected in 1876 came to a conclusion in 1878, and in April of that year General Trujillo was inaugurated as President of the republic for the two succeeding years. His administration was marked by a strong effort to place the financial position of the Government on a more satisfactory footing, and the internal indebtedness was substantially reduced during his rule. In April 1880 Serior Rafael Nunez acceded to the Presidency. During his term of office revolutionary disturbances occurred in the provinces of Cauca and Antioquia, but were suppressed with no great difficulty. Provision was made in 1880 for a settlement of the boundary dispute with Costa Rica, and in July of that year the federal Congress authorized the formation of a naval squadron. A movement was now set afoot in favour of a confederation of the three republics of Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela on the basis of the original conditions existing after the expulsion of Spanish authority, and a resolution was passed by the Chamber of Deputies to that effect. The opposition shown by Venezuela and Ecuador to this project prevented any definite result from being achieved. In April 1882 Senor Laldua became President, but, his death occurring a year later, General Otalora was

nominated to exercise the executive power for the unexpired portion of the term. In 1883 the dispute in connexion with the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela was submitted by the two Governments to the arbitration of Alphonso XII., king of Spain, and a commission of five members was appointed to investigate the merits of the respective claims. The decision in this dispute was finally given by the Queen Regent of Spain on 16th March 1891. In April 1884 Senor Rafael Nunez was again proclaimed President of the republic in his absence abroad. Pending his return the administration was left in the hands of General Campo Serrano and General Eliseo Payan. The Liberal party had been instrumental in the re-election of Nunez, and looked for a policy in conformity with their views and political convictions. President Nunez had no sooner returned to Colombia than the Liberals discovered that his political opinions had changed and had become strongly Conservative. Discontent at this condition of affairs soon spread. Nunez from motives of ill-health did not openly assume the Presidential office, but from his house near Cartagena he practically directed the government of the republic. The Liberals now began to foment a series of revolutionary movements, and these led in-1885 to a civil war extending over the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, and Panama. General Reyes and General Velez were the two principal leaders of the revolt. In order to protect the passage of the traffic across the Isthmus of Panama during these disturbed times detachments of United States marines were landed at Panama and Colon, in accordance with the terms of the concession under which the railway had been constructed. After a number of defeats the leaders of the revolt surrendered in August 1885, and on 5th September following peace was officially proclaimed. Nunez, who had meanwhile assumed the Presidential duties, now brought about a movement in favour of a fresh Act of Constitution for Colombia, and a new law to that effect was finally approved and promulgated on 4th August 1886. Under the terms of this act the federal system of government for Colombia was abolished, the states becoming departments, the governors of these political divisions being appointed by the President of the republic. Each department has a local legislative assembly elected by the people. The National Congress is constituted of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of twenty-seven members elected for six years, one-third retiring every two years, three of whom are nominated by each of the nine departments. The House of Representatives comprises members elected for four years by universal suffrage, each department forming a constituency and returning one member for every 50,000 inhabitants. The Congress convenes every two years. The Presidential term of office under the new Act was fixed at six years in place of the two years formerly prevailing. The judiciary was irremovable, and trial by jury was allowed for criminal offences. Capital punishment was re-established, and the press was made responsible for matter published. The unlicensed trade in arms and ammunition thitherto existing was prohibited. Previous to 1886 the crime of murder was only punishable by 10 years’ imprisonment, a sentence which in practice was reduced to two-thirds of that term; slander and libel were formerly offences which the law had no power to restrain, and no responsibility attached to seditious publications. After the promulgation of this new Act of Constitution President Nunez was proclaimed as President of the republic for the term ending in 1892. He was unable, however, in consequence of ill-health, to reside at Bogota and discharge the presidential duties, and, consequently, in August 1888 Seiior Carlos Holguin was designated to act for him.