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 ASIA

MINOR

Chai) is formed by the junction of three streams that rise in Mount Taurus, and one of these flows through the narrow gorge known as the Cilician Gates. After passing Tarsus, the river enters a marsh which occupies the site of the ancient harbour. The Cydnus is liable to floods, and its deposits have covered Roman Tarsus to a depth of 20 feet. The Sarus (Sihun) is formed by the junction of the Karmalas (Zamanti Su), which rises in the Uzun Yaila, and the Sarus (Saris), which has its sources in the hills to the south of the same plateau. The first, after entering Mount Taurus, flows through a deep chasm walled in by lofty precipices, and is joined in the heart of the range by the Saris. Before reaching the Cilician Plain the river receives the waters of the Kerkhun Su, which cuts through the Bulgar Dagh, and opens a way for the roads from the Cilician Gates to Konia and Kaisarfeh. After passing Adana, to which point small craft ascend, the Sihun runs south-west to the sea. There are, however, indications that at one period it flowed south-east to the Pyramus. The Pyramus (Jihun) has its principal source in a group of large springs near Albistan ; but before it enters Mount Taurus it is joined by the Sogutli Irmak, the Khurman Su, and the Geuk Su. The river emerges from Taurus, about 7 miles west of Marash, and here it is joined by the Ak Su which rises in some small lakes south of Taurus. The Jihun now enters a remarkable defile which separates Taurus from the Giaour Dagh, and reaches the Cilician Plain near Budrum. From this point it flows west, and then south-west past Missis, until it makes a bend to discharge its waters south of Ayas Bay. The river is navigable as far as Missis. In the central and southern portions of the plateau the streams either flow into salt lakes, where their waters pass off by evaporation, or into freshwater lakes, which have no visible outlets. In the latter cases the waters find their way beneath Taurus in subterranean channels, and reappear as the sources of rivers flowing to the coast. Thus the Ak Geul supplies the Cydnus, and the Beishehr, Egirdir, and Kestel lakes the rivers of the Pamphylian Plain. Lakes.—The salt lakes are Tuz Geul, which lies in the great central plain, and is about 60 miles long and 10 to 30 miles broad ; Buldur Geul, 2900 feet above sea-level; and Aji-tuz Geul, 2600 feet. The Sweetwater lakes are Beishehr Geul, 3770 feet, a fine sheet of water 30 miles long, which discharges south-east to the Soghla Geul; Egirdir Geul, 2850 feet, which is 30 miles long, and noted for the abundance and variety of its fish. In the northwest portion of Asia Minor are Isnik Geul, Abulliont Geul, and Maniyas Geul. Springs.—Asia Minor is remarkable for the number of its thermal and mineral springs. The most important are : —Yalova, in the Ismid sanjak; Brusa, Chitli, Terje, and Eski-shehr, in the Brusa; Tuzla, in the Karasi; Cheshme, Ilija, Hierapolis, and Ala-shehr, in the Aidin; Terzili Hammam, in the Angora; Boli and Iskelib, in the Kasta miini; and Khavsa, in the Sivas vilJyet. The climate is varied, but systematic observations are wanting. On the plateau the winter is cold, and in the northern districts there is much snow. The summer is very hot, but the nights are usually cool. On the north coast the winter is cold, and the winds, sweeping across the Black Sea from the steppes of Russia, are accompanied by torrents of rain and heavy falls of snow. East of Samsun, where the coast is partially protected by the Caucasus, the climate is more moderate. In summer the heat is damp and enervating, and, as Trebizond is approached, the vegetation becomes almost subtropical. On the south coast the winter is mild, with occasional frosts and heavy rain ; the summer heat is very great. On the west coast the climate is moderate, but the influence of the cold north

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winds is felt as far south as Smyrna, and the winter at that place is colder than in corresponding latitudes in Europe. The mineral wealth of Asia Minor is very great, but few mines have yet been opened. The minerals known to exist are—alum, antimony, arsenic, asbestos, boracide, chrome, coal, copper, fuller’s earth, gold, iron, kaolin, lead, lignite, magnetic iron, manganese, meerschaum, nickel, rock-salt, silver, sulphur, and zinc. The vegetation varies with the climate, soil, and elevation. The mountains on the north coast are clothed with dense forests of pine, fir, cedar, oak, beech, &c. On the Taurus range the forests are smaller, and there is a larger proportion of pine. On the west coast the ilex, plane, oak, valonea oak, and pine predominate. On the plateau willows, poplars, and chestnut trees grow near the streams. On the south and west coasts the fig and olive are largely cultivated. The vine yields rich produce everywhere, except in the higher districts. The apple, pear, cherry, and plum thrive well in the north; the orange, lemon, citron, and sugar-cane in the south; sty rax and mastic in the south-west; and the wheat lands of the Sivas vil&yet can hardly be surpassed. , The most important vegetable productions are—cereals, cotton, gum tragacanth, liquorice, olive oil, opium, rice, saffron, salep, tobacco, and yellow berries. Silk is produced in large quantities in the vicinity of Bnisa and Amasia. The wild animals include bear, boar, chamois, fallow, red and roe deer, gazelle, hyaena, ibex, jackal, lynx, moufflon, panther, wild sheep, and wolf. Amongst the domestic animals are the buffalo, the Syrian camel, and a mule camel, bred from a Bactrian sire and Syrian mother. Large numbers of sheep and Angora goats are reared on the plateau, and fair horses are bred on the Uzun Yaila; but no effort is made to improve the quality of the wool and mohair, or the breed of horses. Good mules can be obtained in several districts, and small hardy oxen are largely bred for ploughing and transport. The larger birds are the bittern, great and small bustard, eagle, francolin, goose ; giant, grey, and red-legged partridge ; pelican, pheasant, stork, and swan. The rivers and lakes are well supplied with fish, and the mountain streams abound with trout. History.—Asia Minor owes the peculiar interest of its history to its geographical position. “ Planted like a bridge between Asia and Europe,” it has been from the earliest period a battle-ground between the east and the west. The central plateau, 2500 to 4500 feet above the sea, with no navigable river and few natural approaches, with its monotonous scenery and severe climate, is a continuation of Central Asia. The west coast, with its alternation of sea and promontory, of rugged mountains and fertile valleys, its bright and varied scenery, and its fine climate, is almost a part of Europe. These conditions are unfavourable to permanence, and the history of Asia Minor is that of the march of hostile armies, and the rise and fall of small states, rather than that of a united state under an independent sovereign. At a very early period Asia Minor appears to have been occupied by non-Aryan tribes or races which differed little from each other in religion, language, and social system. Since 1875 much light has been thrown upon one of these races—the “ Hittites ” or “ Syro-Cappadocians,” who, after their rule had passed away, were known to Herodotus as “ White Syrians,” and whose descendants can still be recognized in the villages of Cappadocia.1 The centre of their power was Boghaz Keui (Pteria), east of the Halys, whence roads radiated to the harbours on the Aegean, to Sinope, to Northern Syria, 1

The people, Moslem and Christian, are physically one and appear to he closely related to the modern Armenians. This relationship is noticeable in other districts, and the whole original population of Asia. Minor has been characterized as Proto-Armenian or Armenoid.