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ASIA

rises abruptly from the bed of the Jihun, and it is crossed by two celebrated passes—the Amanides Pylse (Baghche Pass), through which ran the road from the Cilician Plain to Apamea-Zeugma, on the Euphrates; and the Pylse Syriac (Beilan Pass), through which passed the great Roman highway from Tarsus to Syria. On the western edge of the plateau several short ranges, running approximately east and west, rise above the general level:— Salbakus-Kadmus, 8000 feet; Messogis, 3600 feet; Tmolus, 4000 feet; Dindymus, 8200 feet; Ida, 5800 feet; and the Mysian Olympus, 7600 feet. The valleys of the Mceander and Hermus facilitate communication between the plateau and the Aegean, and the descent from DoryIseum to the Sea of Marmora presents no difficulties. The northern buttress of the plateau is formed by a succession of forest-clad mountain ranges, which have a general east and west direction, and rise progressively as they approach the interior until they culminate in the Galatian Olympus, 8200 feet. East of the Kizil Irmak, although the ground is in places over 7000 feet high, there is no distinct mountain chain. The best routes from the plateau to the Black Sea are those followed by the Roman roads from Tavium and Sebasteia to Amisus. Several minor ranges rise above the level of the plateau, and in its south - east quarter groups of volcanic peaks and cones extend for about 150 miles from Kaisarfeh to Karaman. The most important are M. Argseus, 13,100 feet; Ali Dagh, 6200 feet; Hassan Dagh, 8000 feet; Karaja Dagh; and Kara Dagh, 7500 feet. The centre of the plateau is occupied by a vagt treeless plain, the Axylon of the Greeks, in which lies a large salt lake, Tuz Geul. The plain is fertile where cultivated, fairly supplied with deep wells, and in many places covered with good pasture. Enclosed between the Taurus and Amanus ranges and the sea is the fertile plain of Cilicia, consisting in great part of a rich, stoneless loam, out of which rise rocky crags that are crowned with the ruins of Greco-Roman and Armenian strongholds. Rivers.—The rivers of Asia Minor are of no great importance. Some do not flow directly to the sea; others find their way to the coast through deep rocky gorges, or are mere torrents; and a few only are navigable for boats for short distances from their mouths. The most important rivers which flow to the Black Sea are :—the Iris (Yeshil Irmak), with its tributaries the Lycus (Kelkit Irmak), which rises on the Armenian plateau, the Chekerek Irmak, which has its source near Yuzgat, and the Tersakan Su. The Halys (Kizil Irmak), the largest river in Asia Minor, with its tributaries the Delije Irmak, Cappadox, which flows through the eastern part of Galatia, and the Geuk Irmak, which has its sources in the mountains above Kastamuni. With the exception of Sivas, no town of importance lies in the valley of the Kizil Irmak throughout its course of over 600 miles. The Sangarius (Sakarxa) rises in the Phrygian mountains and, after many changes of direction, falls into the Black Sea,

MINOR about 80 miles east of the Bosporus. Its tributaries are the Pursak Su (Tembris), which has its source in the Murad Dagh, and, after running north to Eski-shehr, flows almost due east to the Sakarla, and the Enguri Su, which joins the Sakaria a little below the junction of the Pursak. To the Black Sea, about 40 miles east of Eregli, also flows the Billseus (Filiyas Chai). Into the Sea of Marmora run the Rhyndacus (Edrenos Chai), and the Macestus (Susurlu Chai), which unite about 12 miles from the sea. The most celebrated streams of the Troad are the Granicus (Bigha Chai) and the Scamander (Mendere Su), both rising in Mount Ida (Kaz Dagh). The former flows to the Sea of Marmora; the latter to the Dardanelles. The most northerly of the rivers that flow to the Aegean is the Caicus (Bakir Chai), which runs past Soma, and near Pergamos, to the Gulf of Chanderli. The Hermus (Gediz Chai) has its principal sources in the Murad Dagh, and, receiving several streams on its way, runs through the volcanic district of Katakekaumene to the broad fertile valley through which it flows past Manisa to the sea, near Lefke. So recently as about 1880 it discharged into the Gulf of Smyrna, but the shoals formed by its silt-laden waters were so obstructive to navigation that it was turned back into its old bed. Its principal tributaries are — the Phrygius (Kum Chai), which receives the waters of the Lycus (Geurduk Chai), and the Cogamus (Kuzu Chai), which in its upper course is separated from the valley of the Mseander by hills that were crossed by the Roman road from Pergamos to Laodicea. The Caystrus (Kuchuk Mendere) flows through a fertile valley between M. Tmolus and Messogis to the sea near Ephesus, where its silt has filled up the port and advanced the coast-line between 2 and 3 miles. The Maeander (Mendere Chai) takes its rise in a celebrated group of springs near Dineir, and after a winding course enters the broad valley, through which it meanders to the sea. Its deposits have long since filled up the harbours of Miletus, and converted the islands which protected them into mounds in a swampy plain. Its principal tributaries are the Glaucus, the Senarus (Banaz Chai), and the Hippurius, on the right bank. And on the left bank are the Lycus (Churuk Su), which flows westwards by Colossse through a broad open valley that affords the only natural approach to the elevated plateau; the Harpasus (Ak Chai), and the Marsyas (China Chai). The rivers that flow to the Mediterranean, with two exceptions, rise in Mount Taurus, and have short courses, but in winter and spring they bring down large bodies of water. In Lycia are the Indus (Gereniz Chai), and the Xanthus (Eshen Chai). The Pamphylian plain is traversed by the Cestrus (Ak Su), the Eurymedon (Keupri S{i), and the Melas (Menavgat Chai), which, where it enters the sea, is a broad, deep stream, navigable for about 6 miles. The Calycadnus (Geuk Su) flows south-east, near Mut, and enters the sea a deep rapid river about 12 miles below Selefke. West of Mut it is joined by a large stream which runs below Ermenek. The Cydnus (Tersus