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AMERICA

multiplied by splitting and colonizing, must be added the theory that languages were formerly more numerous, and that those of the Americans were formed by combining. The families of North America, Middle America, and South America are here given in alphabetical order, the prevailing ones in small capitals :— Algoxqthax, E. Can., 1ST. Atlantic States, middle States, middle Western States; Athapascan, N.W. Can., Alaska, Wash., Or., Cal., Ariz., Mex. ; Attacapan, La. ; Beothukan, Nova N°rth Scotia; Caddoan, Tex., Neb., Dak.; Chimakuan, America. •^asjli. Chimarikan, N. Cal. ; Chimmesyan, Brit. Col. ; Chinookan, Or. ; Chitimachan, La. ; Chumashan, S. Cal. ; Coahniltecan, Tex.; Copehan, N. Cal.; Costanoan, Cal.; Eskimatjan, Arctic province; Esselenian, Cal. ; Iroqhoian, N.Y., N.C. ; Kalapooian, Or.; Karankawan, Tex. ; Keresan, N. Mex.; Kiowan, Neb. ; Kitunahan, Brit. Col. ; Koluschan, S. Alaska; Kxjlanapan, Cal. ; Kusan, Cal. ; Lutnamian, Or. ; Mariposan, Cal. ; Moquelumnan, Cal. ; Muskhogean, Gulf States; Natchesan, Miss. ; Palaihnihan, Cal. ; Piman, Ariz. ; Pujunan, Cal. ; Quoratean, Or. ; Salinan, Cal. ; Salishan, Brit. Col. ; Sastean, Or. ; Shahaptian, Or, ; Shoshonean, Interior Basin; Siouan, Mo. Valley; Skittagetan, Brit. Col. ; Takilman, Or. ; Tanyoan, Mex. ; Timuquanan, Fla. ; Tonikan, Miss. ; Tonkawan, Tex. ; Uchean, Ga. ; Waiilatpuan, Or. ; Wakashan, Vancouver I. ; Washoan, Nev. ; Weitspekan, Or. ; Wishoskan, Cal. ; Yakonan, Or. ; Yanan, Or. ; Yukian, Cal. ; Yuman, L. Cal. ; Zunyan, N. Mex. Chapanecan, Chi. ; Chinantecan, Oax. ; Chontalan, So. Mex. ; Huatusan, Nic. ; Lencan, Hon. ; Mayan, Yuc. and Gnat. ; NaMiddle HUATLAN, Mex. ; Otomitlan, Cen. Mex. ; Raman, America pecan, blond. ; Isthmus; Subtiaban, Tequistlatecan, Nic. ; Tarascan,Oax. Mich. Mex. ; Triquian, So Mex. ; Ulvan, Nic. ; Xicaquean, Hond. ; Zapotecan, Oax. ; Zoquean, Tehuant. Alikulufan, T. del Fuego ; Arauan, R. Purus; Arawakian, E. Andes ; Atacamenyan, S. Peru ; Aratjcanian, Pampas ; Aymaran, South Peruian i > Bolivia S. Brazil; Garibian, around Caribbean Sea; ; Carahan, Catamarenyan, Chaco; Changuinan, Panama ; Charruan, Parana R. ; Chibchan, Colombia ; Churoyan, Orinoco R. ; Coconucan, Colombia ; Cunan, Panama ; Guaycuruan, Paraguay R. ; Jivaroan, Ecuador; Kechuan, Peru; Laman, N.E. Peru; Lulean, Yermejo R. ; Mainan, S. Ecuador; Matacoan, Vermejo R. ; Mocoan, Colombia; Mosetenan, E. Bolivia; Onan, T. del Fuego; Paniquitan, Colombia; Panoan, Ucayali R., Peru; Puquinan, Titicaca L. ; Samucan, Bolivia; Tacanan, N. Bolivia; Tapuyan, Brazil; Timotean, Venezuela; Tupian, Amazon R. ; Tzonecan, Patagonia ; Yahgan, T. del Fuego ; Yuncan, Truxillo, Peru; Yurucarian, E. Bolivia; Zaparoan, Ecuador. Written language was largely hierographic and heroic. The drama, the cult image, the pictograph, the synechdochic picture, the ideaglyph, were steps in a progress without a break. The warrior painted the story of conflicts on his robe only in part, to help him recount the history of his life j the Eskimo etched the prompters of his legend on ivory; the Tlinkit carved them on his totem post; the women fixed them in pottery, basketry, or blankets. At last, the central advanced tribes made the names of the abbreviated pictures useful in other connexions, and were far on the way to a syllabary. Intertribal communication was through gestures; it may be, survivals of a primordial speech, antedating the dififerentiated spoken languages. To supply their wants the Americans invented modifications in natural materials, the working of which was their Elc^ustr^es- The vast collections in richly-endowed European and American museums are the wit. nesses and types of these. There is danger of confounding the products of native industries. The following classes must be carefully discriminated-—(a) pre-Columbian, {b) Columbian, (c) pre-contact, (d) first contact (e) post-contact, (f) present, and (<j) spurious. Pre-Columbian or pre-historic material is further classified into that which had been used by Indians before the discovery, and such as is claimed to be of a prior geological period. Columbian, or 15th-century material, still exists m museums of Europe and America, and good descriptions are to be found in the writings of contemporary historians. Technology.
 * Tehuante; Totonacan,
 * Barbacoan, Colombia ; Betoyan, Bogota ; CaniAmerica. cha

[anthropology

Pre-contact material is such as continued to exist in any tribe down to the time when they were touched by the presence of the trade of the whites. In some tribes this would bring the student very near to the present time; for example, before Steinen, the Indians in Matto Grosso were in the pre-contact period. Post-contact material is genuine Indian work more or less influenced by acculturation. It is interesting in this connexion to study also first contact in its lists of articles, and the effects produced upon aboriginal minds and methods. For example, a tribe that would jump at iron arrow-heads stoutly declined to modify the shafts. Present material is such as the Indian tribes of the two Americas are making to-day. Spurious material includes all that mass of objects made by whites and sold as of Indian manufacture ; some of it follows native models and methods ; the rest is fraudulent and pernicious. The question whether similarities in technology argue for contact of tribes, or whether they merely show corresponding stages of culture, with modifications produced by environment, divides ethnologists. The study of mechanics involves materials, tools, processes, and products. No iron tools existed in America before the invasion of the whites. Mineral, vegetable, and animal substances, soft and hard, AborJsiaai were wrought into the supply of wants by means of tools and apparatus of stone, wood, and bone; tools for cutting, or edged tools ; tools for abrading and smoothing the surfaces of substances, like planes, rasps, and sandpaper ; tools for striking, that is, pounding for the sake of pounding, or for crushing and fracturing violently; perforating tools; devices for grasping and holding firmly. These varied in the different culture provinces according to the natural supply, and the presence or absence of good tool material counted for as much as the presence or absence of good substances on which to work. As a means of grading progress among the various tribes, the tool is valuable both in its working part and its hafting, or manual part. Fire drills were universal. Besides chipped stone knives, the teeth of rodents, sharks, and other animals served an excellent purpose. In North-west America and in the Caribbean area the adze was highly developed. In Mexico, Colombia, and Peru the cutting of friable stone with tough volcanic hammers and chisels, as well as rude metallurgy, obtained, but the evidences of smelting are not convincing. Engineering devices were almost wanting. The Eskimo lifted his weighted boat with sheer-legs made of two paddles; he also had a tackle without sheaves, formed by reaving a greased thong through slits cut in the hide of a walrus. The North-West Coast Indians hoisted the logs that formed the plates of their house frames into position with skids and parbuckles of rope. The architectural Mexicans, Central Americans, and especially the Peruvians, had no derricks or other hoisting devices, but rolled great stones into place along prepared ways and up inclined planes of earth, which were afterwards removed. In building the fortress of Sacsahuaman, heights had to be scaled; in Tiahuanaco stones weighing 400 tons were carried seventeen miles ; in the edifices of Ollantaytambo not only were large stones hauled up an ascent, but were fitted perfectly. The moving of vast objects by their simple processes shows what great numbers of men could be enlisted in a single effort, and how high a grade ©f government it was which could hold them together and feed them. In Arizona, Mexico, and Peru reservoirs and aqueducts prove that hydrotechny was understood. Time-keeping devices were not common. Sun-dials and calendar monuments were known among the more advanced tribes. Fractional portions of time were gauged by shadows, and time of day indicated by the position of the sun with