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 AMERICA

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the latter is peculiar in that one of its headwaters rises at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains in northern Montana. The Colorado discharges a muddy current into the Gulf of California; but for the aridity of its large drainage area its volume would be much larger. The same is true of the Rio Grande, whose name would be better justified if so much of its basin were not semi-arid. The references already made to lakes. may now be reviewed and summarized. Several lake districts may be mentioned. The most remarkable lacustrine Lakes. region 0f the continent, rivalling that of central Africa, forms a belt around the border of the Laurentian highland; here, in addition to ten large lakes, there are hundreds of medium size, and many thousand small lakes. They are peculiar in occupying a region of moderate relief, in which no strong dislocations have taken place in recent geological time (unless in the case of Lake Superior), and thus in contrasting with the great African Jakes which occupy rift-valleys or graben of comparatively recent fracture. The Laurentian lakes are further characterized by an intimate association with the ice-sheets of the Glacial period; but while glacial erosion and drift obstruction suffice to account for the smaller lakes, it is very probable that broad crustal warping and drainage reversal have been potent aids to the other processes in producing the great lakes. The northern Cordilleran region contains many beautiful lakes of moderate size in deep valleys among the crowded ranges of the narrowed mountain belt. Their origin has not been closely studied. The basins among the spaced ranges of the middle and southern Cordilleras, in the United States and Mexico, contain many lakes that occupy shallow depressions in desert plains; they are usually without outlet and saline; many of the basins were formerly occupied by lakes of much greater size, some of which overflowed, implying a climate moister than that of to-day, probably correlated with the glacial climate of the regions farther north. Lakes in volcanic craters or behind volcanic barriers occur in Central America, while Florida possesses many small lakes in limestone basins. The following table is taken from Russell’s Lakes of North America :—

Ontario Erie. Huron Michigan Superior

Altitude. Feet. 247 573 582 582 602

Area. Square Miles. 7,200(?) 9,900 22,322 21,729 31,000(?)

Depth. Feet. 738 210 750 870 1008

The climatic features of North America are best appreciated when considered as exhibiting modifications Climate those general climatic conditions which prevail in consequence of the globular form of the earth as a whole. In January, when the isotherms of 65° to 75° F. stretch almost directly across land and sea in the torrid zone, a mean temperature of zero or less invades the region north-west of Hudson Bay, which thus resembles north-eastern Asia in departing greatly from the mean prevailing in similar latitudes on the northern oceans, and in bringing upon the northern lands an extension of frigid conditions that have no analogue in the southern or oceanic hemisphere. In July, when the isotherms of 40° and 50° have a tolerably direct course around the latitude circles that border the continent on the north, a great middle area of North America becomes warmer than the seas on the east and west, having a mean of over 80°, and in part over 90°. In January, the Hudson Bay region is 30° colder than the mean of its own latitude, about 60° colder than the mean of the corresponding southern latitude ; while in July the Arizona-Mexican region is 20°

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above the mean of its own latitude, or about 40° above the mean of the corresponding southern latitude. In both winter and summer the isotherms are more closely crowded while crossing the continent than while crossing the adjacent oceans; or, in other words, the poleward temperature gradient is stronger on the land than on the oceans; and all these features should be regarded as inherent characteristics of the climate of North America in virtue of its being a continent chiefly in temperate latitudes. An associated feature of continental climate is found in the strong annual range of temperature of the central land area. The range between the means of January and July exceeds 40° for the largest part of the lands, and 70° for much of the northern lands; the range of extreme temperatures is much greater. On corresponding oceanic areas in the northern hemisphere the range is little more than 20°, and in the southern hemisphere it is probably less than 10°. It must appear from this that if the largest part of North America is said to be in the north temperate zone, “ temperate ” must be taken as having little of the meaning originally given to it in southern Europe, for the winter cold is severe and the summer heat is excessive over much of the North American continent. In this respect two more unlike belts can hardly be found than the north and south temperate zones, in spite of the resemblance that is implied in their names. The several members of the terrestrial wind system, including therein the trade winds of a broadened torrid zone, the stormy westerly winds of middle latitudes, and the irregular winds of the polar regions, are well exemplified over North America; but, as is usually the case on land, the systematic movement of the atmosphere is better seen in the drift of the clouds than in the movement of the surface winds, which are much modified by the changes from hill to valley, from mountain to plain. Nevertheless the prevalence of the general atmosphere currents has much to do with the control of certain values of annual temperature range, as well as with the distribution of rainfall. The former are small (about 20°) along a great stretch of the Pacific coast, even as far north as Alaska, where the moderating influences of the ocean are brought upon the land by the westerly winds; while a range appropriate to a continental interior (30° or 40°) is experienced over most of the eastern side of the continent in temperate latitudes, and even upon the North Atlantic ocean near the American coast, where strong seasonal changes of temperature are carried forward by the westerly winds. It is particularly in this respect that the general climatic resemblances between North America and Eurasia, above referred to, are broken; for eastern Canada and western Europe are strikingly unlike in seasonal variations of temperature. Labrador is about 10° cooler than northern Germany in July, but nearly 40° colder in January. The distribution of rainfall is in general controlled by the prevailing course of the winds. The West Indies receive abundant rain from the passing trades. In Mexico and Central America the eastern slopes are for the most part better watered than the western, because the winds there come chiefly from the east (maximum over 100 in. in Guatemala and adjacent parts). Farther north the reverse holds true ; the Pacific slope north of 40° latitude has an abundant rainfall (maximum over 100 in.), and its mountains are clothed with dense forests. There are large areas of deficient rainfall (less than 20 in.) in the interior of the continent, where the intermontane basins and the piedmontese plains that slope eastward from the Rocky Mountains in middle latitudes are treeless. The areas afflicted with dryness are unsymmetrically distributed, being west of