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] where it bifurcates, one branch penetrating into Shoa over the Ittu chain, the other turning south-west and reaching South Ethiopia over a pass in the Arussi range. By this trade route Harrar is reached in a month from the remotest coniines of Kaffa, and in two or three weeks from the heart of Gallaland, whereas the northern routes through Abyssinia proper to Massawa and Assab are both much longer and far more difficult. The chief distances are : Massawa by Saati and Asmara to Adua, capital of Tigre, 104 miles; Adua to Sokota, converging point of several trade routes from the coast and the interior, 110 ; Sokota to the Italian port of Assab, 240 ; Sokota to Basso, the great market of Gojam, near the Shoa frontier, 180 ; Basso to Lieka, the great market of Gallaland, 120 ; Lieka to Bonga, the great market of Kaffa, 115 ; Bonga to Harrar over the Arussi Range, 270 ; Harrar to the coast at Zeila and Jibuti, 192 and 130.

The Ethiopian uplands appear to have been originally peopled by the eastern branch of the Hamitic family, which has occupied

this region from the remotest times, and still constitutes the great bulk of its inhabitants. But this domain was encroached upon probably in the Stone Age, but certainly before the historic period, both by the uncultured negroes of the White Nile and by the cultured Himyaritic Semites from South Arabia. The presence of these elements is still conspicuous, especially in North Ethiopia, where the blends between blacks, Hamites, and Semites are so numerous and widespread that the natives, who call themselves Itiopiavian (“Ethiopians), are known to the Arabs as Habashi (“mixed”), whence our terms "Abyssinia ” and "Abyssinians.” Throughout historic times the politically dominant people have been the Semitic Himyarites, who, however, have failed to preserve their racial purity, and have gradually been merged in varying proportions with their Hamitic subjects in the present Abyssinian nationality, whose very dark skin, crisp or curly black hair, and some other physical traits, also betray a distinct strain of black blood. The prevailing colour in the central provinces (Amhara, Gojam) is a deep brown, which shades northwards (Tigre, Lasta) to a light olive, and even fair complexion, and southwards (Shoa, Kobbo, Amuru) to a decided chocolate and almost sooty black. Many are distinctly negroid, with tumid lips, small nose, broad at base, and frizzly or ringlety black hair. But the majority may be described as a mixed Hamito-Semitic people, who belong unquestionably to the Caucasic division of mankind. Several of the indigenous groups, such as the Khamtas of Lasta, the Agaos of Agaomider (“ Ao’aoland ”), the Judaizing Falashas, the Khamants of Dembea, still speak rude dialects of the old Hamitic tongue, whose affinities with the Galla, Somal, Afar, Beja, Egyptian, and Berber have now been established. But the official language and that of all the upper classes is Semitic, derived from the ancient Himyaritic, which is the most archaic member of the Semitic linguistic family. It was introduced with the first immigrants from Yemen ; and although no longer spoken, the Geez, as it is called, is still studied as the liturgical language of the Abyssinian Christians. Its literature consists of numerous translations of Jewish, Greek, a,nd Arabic works, besides a valuable version of the Bible dating apparently from the 4th century, when Christianity was introduced by Frumentius of Alexandria. Its best modern representative is the Tigrina of Tigre and Lasta, which is much purer but less cultivated than the Amharic dialect, which is current in the central and southern provinces, and much affected by Hamitic elements. All are written in a peculiar syllabic script which, unlike all other Semitic forms, runs from left to right, and is derived from that of the Sabteans and Minseans, still extant in the very old rock inscriptions of South Arabia. The identity has been fully established by the palseographic studies of Bent, Mordtmann, D. H. Muller, and other archaeologists. The heterogeneous elements entering into the constitution of the Abyssinians are reflected in their political and social institutions, and especially in their religious beliefs and practices. On a seething mass of African heathendom, already in early times affected by primitive _ Semitic ideas, was suddenly imposed an undeveloped form of Christianity in the 4th century. While the various ethnical elements have been merged in the composite Abyssinian nation, the primitive and more advanced religious ideas have nowhere been fused in a uniform Christian system. Even the social system is marked by crude notions of justice and absurd “ Shamanistic ” practices, tempered by a few elevated moral precepts. Foreigners are often surprised at the strange mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a Christian community which, for instance, accounts accidental manslaughter as wilful murder. Dreams, also, are still resorted to for detecting crime. A priest is sent for, and, if his prayers and curses fail, a small boy is drugged, and “whatever person he dreams of is fixed on as the criminal. . . . If he does not dream of the person whom the priest has determined on as the criminal, he is kept under drugs until he does what is required of him ” (Count Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, 1898). Before Menelek’s predecessor, Johannes, the Monophysite Abyssinian Church had only one abuna (patriarch), always a Copt, and always consecrated by the patriarch of Alexandria. But Johannes raised the number to three, one each for the then vassal states of Gojam and Shoa, and one for his own kingdom of Tigre, with the title of metropolitan. After his death the bishop of Shoa claimed supreme jurisdiction, and to settle the question of supremacy Menelek created two abunas, so that the Abyssinian Church boasts of two primates. (See also Abyssinian Church.)

The Negus Nagasti is an absolute monarch scarcely controlled in the exercise of unlimited authority even by the adat (custom, oral code) respected by most eastern despots. Menelek, aoverawhose treatment of his Galla and Somali subjects is menf well spoken of by Wellby and other travellers, governs his own kingdom of Shoa directly, and the other vassal Abyssinian kingdoms indirectly through their several ras (“heads,” “chiefs”), all supreme within their respective jurisdictions. The outlying southern provinces are administered by governors who are appointed by the Negus, and who generally seek the aid of the hereditary local chiefs in maintaining order, levying the irregular forces, and collecting tribute. Under the governors are the dejazmach and kanyazmach (leaders of right and left wings in the army), and under these the Jit-worari (literally “rhinoceros-horn,” or leaders of the advanced guard), who, like the Boer field-cornets, are expected to lead the tribesmen when summoned to fight. Abyssinia can put 300,000 men into the field, 240,000 of them armed with rifles. The emperor keeps court with a certain barbaric pomp, assisted by the azaj (master of ceremonies), alaka (lord of the treasury), muslinie (receivers of tribute), and other dignitaries. The Abyssinian Calendar is as follows The Abyssinian year of 365 days (366 in leap year) begins on the 1st of Maskarram, which corresponds to about our 10th of September. Their months have thirty days each, and are thus named: Maskarram, Tekemt, Hadar, Tahsas, Tarr, Yekatit, Magawit, Miaziah, Genbot, Sanni, Hamle, Nas’hi. The remaining five days in the year, termed Pagmen or Quaggimi (six in leap year—leap day being named Kadis Yohannis), are put in at the end and treated as holidays. The week-days correspond to ours, but are a week behind: e.g., their Easter Sunday is seven days behind ours. Their reckoning is about seven years eight months behind ours : e.g., our New Year’s Day 1901 would be about the 21st Tahsas of their 1893, and their New Year’s Day 1894 would be about our 10th September 1901. (A. H. K.)

Since the publication in 1875 of the article on Abyssinia, in the 9th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, the centre of interest in this country has shifted from the northern to the southern provinces; and several sources of information, not then available, have been opened to us. We make therefore no apology for glancing at the earlier history of Shoa, and bringing up to the date of the British Expedition (1867) a sketch of the internal history both of Northern and Southern Abyssinia before proceeding with the more recent history.

For the last 200 years and more Abyssinia has been a conglomeration of provinces and districts, ill defined, loosely connected, and generally at war with each other. Of these the three chief provinces have been Tigre (northern), Amhara including Gondar (central), and Shoa (southern). The seat of government, or rather of overlordship, has usually been Amhara; the ruler of which, calling himself Negfls Nagasti (king of kings, or emperor), has exacted tribute, when he could, from the other provinces. The question of succession as Negfis Nagasti has been largely dependent on the blood in the veins of the claimant. All the Emperors have based their claims on their direct descent from Solomon and the queen of Sheba; but it is needless to say that in many, if not most, cases their success has been due more to the force of their arms than to the purity of their lineage. Some of the rulers of the larger provinces have at times been given, or given themselves, the title of Negus or king, so that on occasions as many as three, or even more, Negffses have been reigning at the same time ; and this must be borne in mind by the student of Abyssinian history in order to avoid confusion of rulers. The whole history of the country is one gloomy The record of internecine wars, barbaric deeds and unstable