Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition/Abyssinia

BYSSINIA is an extensive country of, the limits of which are not well defined, and authorities are by no means agreed respecting them. It may, however, be regarded as lying between and , and  and  , having, N. and N.W., ; E., the territory of the ; S., the country of the ; and W., the regions of the. It has an area of about 200,000 square miles, and a population of from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000.

The name Abyssinia, or more properly Habessinia, is derived from the word Habesch, which signifies mixture or confusion, and was applied to this country by the on account of the mixed character of the people. This was subsequently by the  into Abassia and Abassinos, and hence the present name. The Abyssinians call themselves Itiopyaean, and their country Itiopia, or Manghesta Itiopia, the kingdom of.

The country of Abyssinia rises rather abruptly from the low arid district on the borders of the in lofty ranges of s, and slopes away more gradually to the westward, where the tributaries of the have formed numerous deep s. It consists for the most part of extensive and elevated s, with mountain ranges extending indifferent directions, and intersected by numerous valleys. The table-lands are generally from 6000 to 9000 feet above the level of the sea, but in the south there are some of considerable extent, which attain a height of more than 10,000 feet. The mountains in various parts of the country rise to 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the sea, and some of the peaks of Samen are said to reach to 15,000 feet, and to be always covered with snow. The average height of the range which divides the streams flowing to the east from those that flow westward is about 8000 feet, rising to 10,000 or 11,000 in the south, and sinking in the north. The whole country presents the appearance of having been broken up and tossed about in a remarkable manner, the mountains assuming wild and fantastic forms, with sides frequently abrupt and precipitous, and only accessible by very difficult passes. The Samen range of mountains are the highest in Abyssinia, and together with the Lamalmon and Lasta mountains form a long but not continuous chain, running from north to south.

The principal rivers of Abyssinia are tributaries of the. The western portion of the country may be divided into three regions, drained respectively by the, the, and the. The most northern of these rivers is the, which rises in the mountains of Taranta, flows first south, then west, and afterwards turns to the north, where it is at length, after a course of upwards of 500 miles, lost in the sand, but in the rainy season it falls into the Atbara. The, or Takazza, rises in the mountains of Lasta, and flowing first north, then west, and again turning to the north, at length falls into the , after a course of about 800 miles. The, Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue River, the eastern branch of the , and considered by to be the main stream of that river, rises from two mountains near , in  N.,   E., about 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. It flows first north to the Lake of Dembea or Tzana, then takes a long semicircular sweep round the province of, and afterwards flows northward to about the 15th degree of N. , where it unites with the Bahr-el-Abiad, which has now been ascertained to be the true. The, the principal river of eastern Abyssinia, rises about  N.,   E., and, flowing in a north-easterly direction towards the  , is lost in Lake Aussa,   N.,   E. The principal  of Abyssinia is the Dembea, which lies between  and  N. , and  and  E. , being about 60 miles in length by 40 in width, and containing a number of small s. It is fed by numerous small streams. The lake of Ashangi, in  N.,   E., is about 4 miles long by 3 broad, and upwards of 8000 feet above the sea.

The fundamental s of, and probably of all Abyssinia, are. They compose the mass of the, and while they occupy no inconsiderable portion of its surface, they are exposed, in at least, in every deep valley. The metamorphics vary greatly in mineral character, “ every intermediate grade being found between the most coarsely line and a  rock so little altered that the lines of the original bedding are still apparent. Perhaps the most prevalent form of rock is a rather finely line. - and -schist are met with, but neither of the s from which they are named appears to be so abundant as in some metamorphic tracts. On the other hand, a compact rock, approaching  in composition, is prevalent in places, as in the Suru, between  and .” There are a few exceptions, but as a general rule it may be asserted that in the neighbourhood of , so much of the country as is more than 8000 feet above the sea consists of bedded s, and this is probably the case in general over Abyssinia. “ Between the traps and the metamorphics a series of s and s intervene, one group of the former underlying the latter. The limestone alone is iferous, and is of age.” “ On the route to  s were first met with at, where several s consist of , passing into  and. s, chiefly of, are dotted over the country to the southward as far as , a distance of nearly 30 miles. Here a great range of bedded traps commences, and extends for about 25 miles to the south, passing to the west of .” At, two marches south of , “ the route entered high ranges entirely composed of , and thence no other rocks were seen as far as .” “ The trappean rocks belong to two distinct and unconformable groups. The lower of these is much inclined, while the higher rests on its upturned and denuded edges.” Denudation has evidently been going on to a great extent in this country. One of its most striking features are the deep ravines which have been worked out by the action of the streams, sometimes to the depth of 3000 or 4000 feet. “ How much of the Abyssinian high lands has been removed by these great torrents, and spread as an alluvial deposit over the basin of the !" “ Probably over the whole of northern Abyssinia there existed at least 4000 feet of bedded s, of which now only a few vestiges remain.”&mdash;W. T. Blanford.

Abyssinia is said to enjoy “ probably as salubrious a as any country on the face of the globe.”&mdash;. The heat is by no means oppressive, a fine light air counteracting the power of the ; and during the y season, the sky being y, the is always agreeable and cool, while the  itself is not very severe. In certain of the low valleys, however, influences prevail before and after the rainy season, and bring on dangerous s. On the higher parts the cold is sometimes intense, particularly at night. The natural division of the seasons is into a cold, a hot, and a rainy season. The cold season may be said to extend from to, the hot from the beginning of  to the middle of, and the wet or  period from this time to the end of. The rainy season is of importance, not only in equalising the temperature, increasing the fertility, and keeping up the supply of the country, but, as  has shown, it plays a most important part in the annual overflow of the.

On the summits and slopes of the highest mountains the vegetation is of a thoroughly temperate and even character ; the x have a flora of the same character ; while on the lower slopes of the hills and in the s occur many s and s of warmer climes. “ The general appearance of the x and s is that of a comparatively bare country, with trees and es thinly scattered over it, and clumps and groves only occur ring round s and es. But the s and ravines in the plateau sides, each with its little bright spring, are often thickly wooded, and offer a delicious contrast to the open country.”&mdash;Markham. This refers more particularly to the northern portion of the country, that drained by the Mareb ; the central and southern parts are much more fertile and productive. Here the fertility is so great that in some parts three crops are raised annually. receives considerable attention, and large quantities of,, , s, s, &c., are grown. Very extensively cultivated is (Poa abyssinica), a herbaceous plant with s not larger than the head of a, of which is made the  in general use throughout the country. The low grounds produce also a kind of called tocussa, of which a black bread is made, which constitutes the food of the lower classes. grows wild on the western mountains, and the and -cane are cultivated in favourable localities. is also grown to a considerable extent. Among the -trees are the, , , , and. ,, and various kinds of valuable plants are common.

Most of the domestic animals of are found here. The are in general small, arid the en belong to the humped race. The famous have horns sometimes four feet long. The belong to the short and fat-tailed race, and are covered with. s are very common, and have sometimes horns two feet in length. The s are strong and active. Of wild animals the spotted is among the most numerous, as well as the fiercest and most destructive, not only roaming in immense numbers over the country, but frequently entering the towns, and even the houses of the. The and  are numerous in the low grounds. The Abyssinian has two s ; its, which has no folds, is used for s, and for lining drinking vessels, being regarded as an  to. s and are plentiful in the s ; s, s, and s are seen occasionally, and es frequently. Among other animals may be mentioned as common various species of s, wild, s, s, s, several species of , s, &c.

The s of Abyssinia are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for the beauty of their plumage. Great numbers of s, s, s, and other birds of prey are met with ; and s, s, s, s, es, and s are very plentiful. Among s the most numerous and useful is the, everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the, and several of the paying a large proportion of their tribute in this article. Of an opposite class is the, the ravages of which here, as in other parts of , are terrible. s are not numerous, but several species are.

The inhabitants of Abyssinia form a number of different s, and evidently belong to several distinct s. The majority are of the race, and are in general well-formed and handsome, with straight and regular features, lively s, long and straight or somewhat curled, and  dark, approaching to. Rüppell regards them as identical in features with the. The tribes inhabiting, , , &c., belong to this race. The race, who came originally from the south, have now overrun the greater part of the country, constituting a large portion of the soldiery, and, indeed, there are few of the s who have not an intermixture of Galla blood in their veins. They are fierce and turbulent in character, and addicted to cruelty. Many of them are still aters, but most of them have now adopted the, and not a few of them the  of the Abyssinians. They are generally large and well-built, of a brown, with regular features, small deeply-sunk but very bright s, and long black. A race of, known by the name of , inhabit the district of. They affirm that their forefathers came into the country in the days of, but it seems more probable that they arrived about the time of the destruction of. From the 10th century they enjoyed their own constitutional rights, and were subject to their own s, who, they pretend, were descended from King, until the year 1800, when the royal race became extinct, and they then became subject to.

The prevailing religion of Abyssinia is a very corrupted form of. This is professed by the majority of the people, as well as by the reigning princes of the different states. There are also scattered over the country many, and some or. Christianity was introduced into this country about the year 330, but since that time it has been so corrupted by of various kinds as to have become little more than a dead formality mixed up with much  and. and are very frequent, and  and the  are dispensed after the manner of the. The children are, and the  are observed. The eating of animals which do not chew the and which have not cloven s is prohibited. The ecclesiastical body is very numerous, consisting of s of various kinds, with s and s, and is looked upon with great awe and reverence. If a priest be married previous to his ordination, he is allowed to remain so ; but no one can marry after having entered the priesthood. The or chief  is called  (i.e., our father), and is nominated by the  of, whom they acknowledge as their spiritual father. The es are rude edifices, chiefly of a circular form, with thatched roofs, the interior being divided into three compartments, an outer one for the, one within for the s, and in the centre the Holy of Holies, exactly after the manner of a Jewish. The worship consists merely in reading passages of and dispensing the, without any. Like the Greek Church, they have no of any kind in their places of worship, but  of the s are very common&mdash;their faces always in full, whatever may be the position of their bodies. They have innumerable s, but above all is the, whom they regard as of  and , and the great intercessor for the s of. Their reverence for a saint is often greater than for the, and a man who would not hesitate to invoke the name of his in witness to a falsehood may decline so to use the name of  or. Legends of saints and works of religious controversy form almost their entire. “ At present,” says Bishop Gobat, “ the of Abyssinia are divided into three parties, so inimical to each other that they curse one another, and will no longer par take of the  together. It is one single point of that disunites them&mdash;the unceasing dispute concerning the  of .&rdquo;

In manners the Abyssinians are rude and barbarous. Engaged as they are in continual s, and accustomed to bloodshed, human life is little regarded among them. s and s are frequent, and yet cruelty is said not to be a marked feature of their character ; and in war they seldom kill their s. When one is convicted of murder, he is handed over to the relatives of the deceased, who may either put him to death or accept a. When the murdered person has no relatives, the take upon themselves the office of avengers. The Abyssinians are irritable, but easily appeased ; and are a gay people, fond of festive indulgences. On every festive occasion, as a saint's day,,, &c., it is customary for a rich man to collect his friends and neighbours, and kill a and one or two. The principal parts of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quivering, the remainder being cut into small pieces, and cooked with the favourite sauce of and red  paste. The raw meat in this way is considered to be very superior in taste and much tenderer than when cold. “ I can readily believe,” says Mr, “ that raw meat would be preferred to cooked meat by a man who from childhood had been accustomed to it.” The statement by respecting the cutting of steaks from a live cow has frequently been called in question, but there can be no doubt that  actually saw what he narrates, though it would appear to have been a very exceptional case. Mr was told by a soldier, “ that such a practice was not uncommon among the, and even occasionally occurred among themselves, when, as in the case  relates, a cow had been stolen or taken in foray.” The principal drinks are mese, a kind of , and bousa, a sort of  made from fermented s. Their  consists of a large folding  and close-fitting ; and their s are very rude structures of a conical form, covered with. is a very slight connection among them, dissolvable at any time by either of the parties ; and is by no means uncommon. Hence there is little affection, and what exists is only among children of the same father and mother. Children of the same father, but of different mothers, are said to be “ always enemies to each other.”&mdash;Gobat.

Abyssinia is one of the most ancient in the world, and has been governed from time immemorial by an. For many years, however, until the accession of the late Emperor, he had been a mere puppet in the hands of one or other of his chiefs. Each chief is entire master of all sources of revenue within his, and has practically full power of life and death. His subjection consists in an obligation to send from time to time presents to his superior, and to follow him to with as large a force as he can muster. For several generations the emperor had been little better than a prisoner in his palace at, his sole revenue consisting of a small stipend and the tolls of the weekly s of that city, the real power being in the hands of the ras or of the empire, who was always the most powerful chief for the time. If at any time a chief “ has found himself strong enough to march upon the capital, he has done so, placed upon the throne another puppet emperor, and been by him appointed ras or, till a rival stronger than himself could turn him out and take his place.”&mdash;Dr Beke.

The three principal provinces of Abyssinia are in the north, (in which  the capital is situated) in the centre, and  in the south. The governors of these have all at different times assumed the title of Ras. Three other provinces of some importance are, whose capital is ;, to the south of ; and , to the west of that lake, the birth-place of the Emperor Theodore. The two provinces of and  have generally been in a state of rebellion from or acknowledged independence of the central power at. The geographical position of enhances its political importance, as it lies between  and the sea at, and thus holds as it were the gate of the capital. The province of is almost separated from that of  by the Wolla s, a  tribe, and for a long time the former had been virtually independent, and governed by a hereditary line of s, to one of whom the n government sent a special embassy under Major Harris in 1841.

The principal s are in, the former capital of the kingdom, and containing about 7000 inhabitants, and in, formerly a small , but which rose to be a place of considerable size in consequence of the Emperor Theodore having fixed upon it as his residence, and near it was , where the an workmen resided. It was burned by the emperor when he set out on his fatal march to. is the capital of, and the second city in the empire, having about 6000 inhabitants. is also one of the principal towns of, and the capital of. Near Antalo is. , the capital of, is a town of considerable size. The capital of is, and near it is , also a place of considerable size. The capital of is.

The language of the and of the country is the, which belongs to the  class of languages, and is the ancient language of ; of this the modern  is a dialect. The, the language of , is that of the , the army, and the , and is that too which travellers who penetrate beyond have ordinarily occasion to use. But the in its various dialects is the language of the people in some provinces almost exclusively, and in others, where it has been superseded by the language of the dominant race, it still exists among the lowest classes. This last is believed to be the original language of the people; and from the affinity of the, , and cognate dialects, to the , it seems probable that they were introduced by conquerors or settlers from the opposite shores of the. The s, who have overrun a great part of Abyssinia, have introduced their own language into various parts of the country, but in many cases they have adopted the language of the people among whom they have come. The of Abyssinia is very poor, and contains nothing of much value. During the late war the in connection with the  were found to contain only modern works of little interest. On the capture of, a large number of MSS. were found there, which had been brought by Theodore from and other parts. Of these 359 were brought home for examination, and are now deposited in the. The oldest among them belong to the 15th and 16th centuries, but the great bulk of them are of the 17th and 18th, and some are of the present century. They are mostly copies of the, ical and l, including the , and  books, s, , and translations of various of the.

The and s of Abyssinia are insignificant, the people being chiefly engaged in and  pursuits. cloths, the universal of the country, are made in large quantities. The preparation of and  is also carried on to some extent, and manufactures of  and. “ The Abyssinians are, I think,” says Mr Markham, “ capable of civilisation. Their agriculture is good, their manufactures are not to be despised; but the combined effects of isolation, inroads, and internal anarchy, have thrown them back for centuries.” The foreign trade of Abyssinia is carried on entirely through. Its principal imports are,, , , , wares, n s, and coloured cloths. The chief exports are, , s, , , , and.

Abyssinia, or at least the northern portion of it, was included in the ancient kingdom of. The connection between and was in early times very intimate, and occasionally the two countries were under the same ruler, so that the arts and  of the one naturally found their way into the other. In early times, too, the had commercial intercourse with the ns ; and according to the Abyssinians, the Queen of, who visited, was a monarch of their country, and from her son  the kings of Abyssinia are descended. During the captivity many of the settled here, and brought with them a knowledge of the. Under the, the arts as well as the enterprise of the entered , and led to the establishment of Greek. A Greek inscription at, no longer extant, but copied by , and preserved in his Topographia Christiana, records that , the third of the Greek dynasty in , invaded the countries on both sides of the , and, having reduced most of the provinces of  to subjection, returned to the port of , and there offered sacrifices to , , and. Another inscription, not so ancient, found at, and copied by Salt and others, states that Aeizanas, king of the Axomites, the , &c., conquered the nation of the , and returned thanks to his father, the god , for his victory. The ancient kingdom of nourished in the first or second century of our era, and was at one time nearly coextensive with the modern Abyssinia. The capital and the seaport Adulis were then the chief centres of the trade with the interior of  in, , , , &c. At Axum, the site of the ancient capital, many vestiges of its former greatness still exist ; and the ruins of Adulis, which was once a seaport on the, are now about 4 miles from the shore. was introduced into the country by, who was consecrated first bishop of Abyssinia by of  about 330. Subsequently the was introduced, and between 470 and 480 a great company of monks appear to have entered and established themselves in the country. Since that time Monachism has been a power among the people, and not without its influence on the course of events. In 522 the king of the, on the opposite coast of the , having persecuted the Christians, the   requested the king of Abyssinia, Caleb or Elesbaan, to avenge their cause. He accordingly collected an army, crossed over into, and conquered , which remained subject to Abyssinia for 67 years. This was the most flourishing period in the annals of the country. The ns possessed the richest part of Arabia, carried on a large trade, which extended as far as and, and were in constant communication with the. Their expulsion from Arabia, followed by the conquest of by the  in the middle of the 7th century, changed this state of affairs, and the continued advances of the followers of  at length cut them off from almost every means of communication with the civilised world ; so that, as  says, “ encompassed by the enemies of their religion, the ns slept for near a thousand years, forgetful of the world by whom they were forgotten.” About 960, a Jewish princess, Judith, conceived the bloody design of murdering all the members of the royal family, and of establishing herself in their stead. During the execution of this project, the infant king was carried off by some faithful adherents, and conveyed to, where his authority was acknowledged, while Judith reigned for 40 years over the rest of the kingdom, and transmitted the crown to her descendants. In 1268 the kingdom was restored to the royal house in the person of Icon Imlac.

Towards the close of the 15th century the missions into Abyssinia commenced. A belief had long prevailed in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far east, whose monarch was known as, and various expeditions had been sent in quest of it. Among others who had engaged in this search was, who arrived in Abyssinia in 1490, and, believing that he had at length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented to the Negus, or of the country, a letter from his master the king of , addressed to Prester John. Covilham remained in the country, but in 1507 an n named Matthew was sent by the Negus to the king of to request his aid against the. In 1520 a Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered the in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet visited the country of the Negus, and remained there for about six years. One of this embassy was Father Alvarez, from whom we have the earliest and not the least interesting account of the country. Between 1528 and 1540 armies of, under the renowned general , entered Abyssinia from the low country, and overran the kingdom, obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses. In this extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese, and Bermudez, who had remained in the country after the departure of the embassy, was ordained successor to the, and sent on this mission. In consequence a Portuguese fleet, under the command of, was sent from and arrived at. A force of 450 s, under the command of, younger brother of the , marched into the interior, and being joined by native troops were at first successful against the , but were subsequently defeated, and their commander taken prisoner and put to death. Soon afterwards, however, was shot in an engagement, and his forces totally routed. After this, quarrels arose between the Negus and the  Bermudez, who wished the former publicly to profess himself a convert to. This the Negus refused to do, and at length Bermudez was obliged to make his way out of the country. The who had accompanied or followed Bermudez into Abyssinia, and fixed their head-quarters at, were oppressed and neglected, but not actually expelled. In the beginning of the following century Father Paez arrived at Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into high favour at court, and gained over the emperor to his faith. He directed the erection of es, s, and s in different parts of the country, and carried out many useful works. His successor Mendez was a man of much less conciliatory manners, and the feelings of the people became more strongly excited against the intruders, till at length, on the death of the Negus, and the accession of his son Facilidas in 1633, they were all sent out of the country, after having had a footing there for nearly a century and a half. The physician Poncet, who went there in 1698, was the only European that afterwards visited the country before  in 1769.

It was about the middle of the 16th century that the tribes first entered Abyssinia from the south ; and notwithstanding frequent efforts to dislodge them, they gradually extended and strengthened their positions till they had overrun the greater part of the country. The power of the emperor was thus weakened, independent chiefs set themselves up in different parts, until at length he became little better than a puppet in the hands of the most powerful of his chiefs. In 1805 the country was visited by Lord Valentia and Mr Salt, and again by Salt in 1810. In 1829 Messrs Gobat and Kugler were sent out as by the, and were well received by the Ras of. Mr Kugler died soon after his arrival, and his place was subsequently supplied by Mr Isenberg, who was followed by Messrs Blumhardt and Krapf. In 1830 Mr Gobat proceeded to, where he also met with a favourable reception. In 1833 he returned to, and published a journal of his residence here. In the following year he went back to, but in 1836 he was compelled to leave from ill health. In 1838 other were obliged to leave the country, owing to the opposition of the. Messrs Isenberg and Krapf went south, and established themselves at. The former soon after returned to, and Mr Krapf remained in till March 1842. Dr Rüppel, the naturalist, visited the country in 1831, and remained nearly two years. MM. Combes and Tamisier arrived at in 1835, and visited districts which had not been traversed by ans since the time of the Portuguese. In 1839 the sent out a scientific commission under M. Lefebvre. Its labours extended over five years, and have thrown great light on the condition and productions of the country. In 1841 a political mission was sent by the Governor-General of to, under the direction of Major Harris, who subsequently published an account of his travels. One who has done much to extend our geographical knowledge of this country is Dr Beke, who was there from 1840 to 1843. Mr was there from 1843 to 1846, and has written the most interesting book on the country since the time of. Bishop Gobat having conceived the idea of sending lay missionaries into the country, who would engage in secular occupations as well as carry on missionary work, Dr Krapf and Mr Flad arrived in 1855 as pioneers of that mission. Six came out at first, and they were subsequently joined by others. Their work, however, was more valuable to Theodore than their preaching, so that he employed them as work men to himself, and established them at, near his capital. Mr Stern arrived in Abyssinia in 1860, but returned to, and came back in 1863, accompanied by Mr and Mrs Rosenthal.

Lij Kassa, who came subsequently to be known as the Emperor Theodore, was born in, a western province of Abyssinia, about the year 1818. His father was of noble family, and his uncle was governor of the provinces of, , and. He was educated in a, but, preferring a wandering life, he became leader of a band of malcontents. On the death of his uncle he was made governor of Kuara, but, not satisfied with this, he seized upon Dembea, and having defeated several generals sent against him, peace was restored on his receiving Tavavitch, daughter of Ras Ali, in marriage. This lady is said to have been his good genius and counsellor, and during her life his conduct was most exemplary. He next turned his arms against the, but was defeated ; and the mother of Ras Ali having insulted him in his fallen condition, he proclaimed his independence. The troops sent against him were successively defeated; and eventually the whole of the possessions of Ras Ali fell into his hands. He next defeated the chief of, and then turned his arms against the governor of , whom he totally defeated in February 1855. In March of the same year he took the title of Theodore III., and caused himself to be crowned king of by the. Theodore was now in the zenith of his career. He is described as being generous to excess, free from cupidity, merciful to his vanquished enemies, and strictly continent, but subject to violent bursts of anger, and possessed of unyielding pride and fanatical religious zeal. He was also a man of education and intelligence, superior to those among whom he lived, with natural talents for governing, and gaining the esteem of others. He had further a noble bearing and majestic walk, a frame capable of enduring any amount of fatigue, and is said to have been “ the best shot, the best man, the best runner, and the best horseman in Abyssinia.” Had he contented himself with what he now possessed, the sovereignty of and, he might have maintained his position ; but he was led to exhaust his strength against the , which was probably one of the chief causes of his ruin. He obtained several victories over that people, ravaged their country, took possession of, which he afterwards made his principal stronghold, and enlisted many of the chiefs and their followers in his own ranks. He shortly afterwards reduced the kingdom of, and took , the capital ; but in the meantime his own people were groaning under his heavy exactions, rebellions were breaking out in various parts of his provinces, and his good queen was now dead. He lavished vast sums of money upon his army, which at one time amounted to 100,000 or 150,000 fighting men; and in order to meet this expenditure, he was forced to exact exorbitant tributes from his people. The, Plowden, who was strongly attached to Theodore, having been ordered by his Government in 1860 to return to , was attacked on his way by a rebel named Garred, mortally wounded, and taken prisoner. Theodore attacked the rebels, and in the action the murderer of Mr Plowden was slain by his friend and companion Mr Bell, but the latter lost his life in preserving that of Theodore. The deaths of the two Englishmen were terribly avenged by the slaughter or mutilation of nearly 2000 rebels. Theodore soon after married his second wife Terunish, the proud daughter of the late governor of, who felt neither affection nor respect for the upstart who had dethroned her father, and the union was by no means a happy one. In 1862 he made a second expedition against the, which was stained with atrocious cruelties. Theodore had now given himself up to intoxication and lust. When the news of Mr Plowden's death reached England, Captain Cameron was appointed to succeed him as consul, and arrived at in February 1862. He proceeded to the camp of the king, to whom he presented a, a pair of s, and a letter in the 's name. In October Captain Cameron was dismissed by Theodore, with a letter to the, which reached the Foreign Office on the 12th of February 1863. For some reason or other this letter was put aside and no answer returned, and to this in no small degree is to be attributed the difficulties that subsequently arose with that country. After forwarding the letter, Captain Cameron, hearing that the of  had been attacked by the  and other tribes under ian rule, proceeded to that district, and afterwards went to, the seat of the ian administration in that quarter. Thence he went to, where he was taken ill, and in order to recruit his health he returned to Abyssinia, and reached in August 1863. In November despatches were received from, but no answer to the emperor's letter, and this, together with the consul's visit to , greatly offended him, and in January 1864 Captain Cameron and his suite, with Messrs Stern and Rosenthal, were cast into prison. When the news of this reached, the Government resolved, when too late, to send an answer to the emperor's letter, and selected Mr Hormuzd Rassam to be its bearer. He arrived at in July 1864, and immediately despatched a messenger requesting permission to present himself before the emperor. Neither to this nor a subsequent application was any answer returned till August 1865, when a curt note was received, stating that Consul Cameron had been released, and if Mr Rassam still desired to visit the king, he was to proceed by the route of. They reached on 21st November, and five weeks more were lost before they heard from the emperor, whose reply was now courteous, informing them that the governors of all the districts through which they had to march had received orders to furnish them with every necessary. They left on the 28th December, and on 25th January following arrived at Theodore's camp in. They were received with all honour, and were afterwards sent to, on , there to await the arrival of the captives. The latter reached this on 12th March, and everything appeared to proceed very favourably. A month later they started for the coast, but had not proceeded far when they were all brought back and put into confinement. Theodore then wrote a letter to the, requesting an workmen and machinery to be sent to him, and despatched it by Mr Flad. The ans, although detained as prisoners, were not at first unkindly treated ; but in the end of June they were sent to, where they were soon afterwards put in chains. They suffered hunger, cold, and misery, and were in constant fear of death, till the spring of 1868, when they were relieved by the troops. In the meantime the power of Theodore in the country was rapidly waning. In order to support his vast standing army, the country was drained of its resources : the peasantry abandoned the, and took refuge in the fastnesses, and large fertile tracts remained uncultivated. Rebellions broke out in various parts of the country, and desertions took place among his troops, till his army became little more than a shadow of what it once was. had already shaken off his yoke ; was virtually independent ;  and  were under a rebel chief ; and  and the country about  had submitted to Wagsham Gobaze, who had also overrun ", and appointed Dejach Kassai his governor. The latter, however, in 1867 rebelled against his master, and assumed the supreme power of that province. This was the state of matters when the  troops made their appearance in the country. With a view if possible to effect the release of the prisoners by conciliatory measures, Mr Flad was sent back, with some artisans and machinery, and a letter from the, stating that these would be handed over to his Majesty on the release of the prisoners and their return to . This, however, failed to influence the emperor, and the  at length saw that they must have recourse to arms. In July 1867, therefore, it was resolved to send an army into Abyssinia to enforce the release of the captives, and  was appointed commander-in-chief. A reconnoitring party was despatched beforehand, under Colonel Merewether, to select the landing-place and anchorage, and explore the passes leading into the interior. They also entered into friendly relations with the different chiefs in order to secure their co-operation. The landing-place selected was, on , the point of the coast nearest to the site of the ancient , and we are told that “ the pioneers of the expedition followed to some extent in the footsteps of the adventurous soldiers of , and met with a few faint traces of this old world enterprise.”&mdash;C. R. Markham. The force amounted to upwards of 16,000 men, besides 12,640 belonging to the transport service, and followers, making in all upwards of 32,000 men. The task to be accomplished was to march over 400 miles of a mountainous and little-known country, inhabited by savage tribes, to the camp or fortress of Theodore, and compel him to deliver up his captives. The commander-in-chief landed on 7th January 1868, and soon after the troops began to move forward through the pass of, and southward through the districts of , , , , , and. In the meantime Theodore had been reduced to great straits. His army was rapidly deserting him, and he could hardly obtain food for his followers. He resolved to quit his capital, which he burned, and set out with the remains of his army for. During this march he displayed an amount of engineering skill in the construction of, of military talent, and fertility of resource, that excited the admiration and astonishment of his enemies. On the afternoon of the 10th of April a force of about 3000 men suddenly poured down upon the English in the plain of, a few miles from. They advanced again and again to the charge, but were each time driven back, and finally retired in good order. Early next morning Theodore sent Lieut. Prideaux, one of the captives, and Mr Flad, accompanied by a native chief, to the camp to sue for peace. Answer was returned, that if he would deliver up all the ans in his hands, and submit to the, he would receive honourable treatment. The captives were liberated and sent away, and along with a letter to the was a present of 1000 cows and 500 sheep, the acceptance of which would, according to Eastern custom, imply that peace was granted. Through some misunderstanding, word was sent to Theodore that the present would be accepted, and he felt that he was now safe ; but in the evening he learned that it had not been received, and despair again seized him. Early next morning he attempted to escape with a few of his followers, but subsequently returned. The same day (13th April) was stormed and taken, and within they found the dead body of the emperor, who had fallen by his own hand. The inhabitants and troops were subsequently sent away, the destroyed, and the town burned. The queen Terunish having expressed her wish to go back to her own country, accompanied the army, but died during the march, and her son Alam-ayahu, the only legitimate son of the emperor, was brought to, as this was the desire of his father. The success of the expedition was in no small degree owing to the aid afforded by the several native chiefs through whose country it passed, and no one did more in this way than Prince Kassai of. In acknowledgment of this several pieces of ordnance, small arms, and ammunition, with much of the surplus stores, were handed over to him, and the troops left the country in May 1868. Soon after this Prince Kassai declared his independence ; and in a war which broke out between him and Wagsham Gobaze, the latter was defeated, and his territory taken possession of by the conqueror. In 1872 Kassai was crowned king of Abyssinia with great ceremony at, under the title of King Johannes. In that year the governor of, , a , by command of the Viceroy of , marched an armed force against the country. The king solicited the aid of, , and against the ians, whose troops, however, were after a time withdrawn. Sir Bartle Frere, in the blue-book published respecting his mission to, is of the opinion that , having regard to the passage to by the , should not have wholly abandoned Abyssinia.

(See Travels of, 1768–73; Lord Valentia, Salt, 1809–10; Combes et Tamisier, 1835–37; Ferret et Galinier, 1839–43; Rüppell, 1831–33; MM. Th. Lefebvre, A. Petit, et Quartin-Dillon, 1839–43; Major Harris; Gobat; Dr C. Beke; Isenberg and Krapf, 1839–42; ; Von Heuglin, 1861–62; H. A. Stem, 1860 and 1868; Dr Blanc, 1868; A. Rassam, 1869; C. R. Markham, 1869; W. T. Blanford, 1870; Record of the Expedition to Abyssinia, compiled by order of the Secretary of State for War, by Major T. J. Holland and Captain H. Hozier, 2 vols. 4to, and plates, 1870; various ary Papers, 1867–68.)

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