Chapman v. California/Concurrence Stewart

Mr. Justice STEWART, concurring in the result.

In devising a harmless-error rule for violations of federal constitutional rights, both the Court and the dissent proceed as if the question were one of first impression. But in a long line of cases, involving a variety of constitutional claims in both state and federal prosecutions, this Court has steadfastly rejected any notion that constitutional violations might be disregarded on the ground that they were 'harmless.' Illustrations of the principle are legion.

When involuntary confessions have been introduced at trial, the Court has always reversed convictions regardless of other evidence of guilt. As we stated in Lynumn v. State of Illinois, 372 U.S. 528, 537, 83 S.Ct. 917, 922, 9 L.Ed.2d 922, the argument that the error in admitting such a confession 'was a harmless one * *  * is an impermissible doctrine.' That conclusion has been accorded consistent recognition by this Court. Malinski v. People of State of New York, 324 U.S. 401, 404, 65 S.Ct. 781, 783, 89 L.Ed. 1029; Payne v. State of Arkansas, 356 U.S. 560, 568, 78 S.Ct. 844, 850; Spano v. People of State of New York, 360 U.S. 315, 324, 79 S.Ct. 1202, 1207, 3 L.Ed.2d 1265; Haynes v. State of Washington, 373 U.S. 503, 518-519, 83 S.Ct. 1336, 1345, 10 L.Ed.2d 513; Jackson v. Denno, 378 U.S. 368, 376 377, 84 S.Ct. 1774, 1780, 12 L.Ed.2d 908. Even when the confession is completely 'unnecessary' to the conviction, the defendant is entitled to 'a new trial free of constitutional infirmity.' Haynes v. State of Washington, supra, 373 U.S., at 518-519, 83 S.Ct., at 1346.

When a defendant has been denied counsel at trial, we have refused to consider claims that this constitutional error might have been harmless. 'The right to have the assistance of counsel is too fundamental and absolute to allow courts to indulge in nice calculations as to the amount of prejudice arising from its denial.' Glasser v. United States, 315 U.S. 60, 76, 62 S.Ct. 457, 467, 86 L.Ed. 680. That, indeed, was the whole point of Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335, 83 S.Ct. 792, overruling Betts v. Brady, 316 U.S. 455, 62 S.Ct. 1252, 86 L.Ed. 1595. Even before trial, when counsel has not been provided at a critical stage, 'we do not stop to determine whether prejudice resulted.' Hamilton v. State of Alabama, 368 U.S. 52, 55, 82 S.Ct. 157, 159, 7 L.Ed.2d 114; White v. State of Maryland, 373 U.S. 59, 60, 83 S.Ct. 1050, 10 L.Ed.2d 193.

A conviction must be reversed if the trial judge's remuneration is based on a scheme giving him a financial interest in the result, even if no particular prejudice is shown and even if the defendant was clearly guilty. Tumey v. Ohio, 273 U.S. 510, 535, 47S.Ct. 437, 445. To try a defendant in a community that has been exposed to publicity highly adverse to the defendant is per se ground for reversal of his conviction; no showing need be made that the jurors were in fact prejudiced against him. Sheppard v. Maxwell, 384 U.S. 333, 351 352, 86 S.ct. 1507, 1515, 16 L.Ed.2d 600; cf. Rideau v. State of Louisiana, 373 U.S. 723, 727, 83 S.Ct. 1417, 1419, 10 L.Ed.2d 663. See also Estes v. State of Texas, 381 U.S. 532, 542-544, 85 S.Ct. 1628, 1632-1633, 14 L.Ed.2d 543; 381 U.S. 562-564, 85 S.Ct. 1642 1643 (Warren, C. J., concurring); 381 U.S. 593-594, 85 S.Ct. 1665 1666 (Harlan, J., concurring).

When a jury is instructed in an unconstitutional presumption, the conviction must be overturned, though there was ample evidence apart from the presumption to sustain the verdict. Bollenbach v. United States, 326 U.S. 607, 614-615, 66 S.Ct. 402, 405-406, 90 L.Ed. 350. Reversal is required when a conviction may have been rested on a constitutionally impermissible ground, despite the fact that there was a valid alternative ground on which the conviction could have been sustained. Stromberg v. People of State of California, 283 U.S. 359, 367-368, 51 S.Ct. 532, 535, 75 L.Ed. 1117; Williams v. State of North Carolina, 317 U.S. 287, 292, 63 S.Ct. 207, 210, 87 L.Ed. 279. In a long line of cases leading up to and including whitus v. Georgia, 385 U.S. 545, 87 S.Ct. 643, 17 L.Ed.2d 599, it has never been suggested that reversal of convictions because of purposeful discrimination in the selection of grand and petit jurors turns on any showing of prejudice to the defendant.

To be sure, constitutional rights are not fungible goods. The differing values which they represent and protect may make a harmless-error rule appropriate for one type of constitutional error and not for another. I would not foreclose the possibility that a harmless-error rule might appropriately be applied to some constitutional violations. Indeed, one source of my disagreement with the court's opinion is its implicit assumption that the same harmless-error rule should apply indiscriminately to all constitutional violations.

But I see no reason to break with settled procedent in this case, and promulgate a novel rule of harmless error applicable to clear violations of Griffin v. State of California, 380 U.S. 609, 85 S.Ct. 1229. The adoption of any harmlesserror rule, whether the one proposed by the Court, or by the dissent, or some other rule, commits this Court to a case-by-case examination to determine the extent to which we think unconstitutional comment on a defendant's failure to testify influenced the outcome of a particular trial. This burdensome obligation is one that we here are hardly qualified to discharge.

A rule of automatic reversal would seem best calculated to prevent clear violations of Griffin v. State of California. This case is one in which the trial occurred before the Griffin decision but which was not final on appeal until afterwords, so the doctrine of prospectivity announced in Tehan v. United Staes ex rel. Shott, 382 U.S. 406, 86 S.Ct. 459, 15 L.Ed.2d 453, does not reach it. But the number of such cases is strictly limited. Prosecutors are unlikely to indulge in clear violations of Griffin in the future, and if they do I see no reason why the sanction of reversal should not be the result.

For these reasons I believe it inappropriate to inquire whether the violation of Griffin v. State of California that occurred in this case was harmless by any standard, and accordingly I concur in the reversal of the judgment.

Mr. Justice HARLAN, dissenting.