1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Norway

NORWAY (see ). The population of Norway, according to the preliminary results of the census of Dec. 1 1920, had increased to 2,646,306, from 2,393,906 in 1910. Of the 1920 population, 1,863,300 (70.34%) were resident in the country districts and 785,700 (29.66%) in the towns. The urban population forms a constantly increasing percentage, a phenomenon which reflects the advancing industrialization of the country.

Emigration has always been greatest from the country districts and has deprived the land first and foremost of a large part of the peasantry's young manhood. During 1901-10 63% of the emigrants were males, and of these 72% were single. The incidence of emigration was greatest between the ages of 20 and 25 years, and next in the age-class of 15-20 and third 25-30. During 1910-20 emigration slightly but steadily decreased owing to the better opportunities of work at home, and the many hindrances to travel caused by the World War. The number of emigrants was as follows:—1911, 12,447; 1912, 9,105; 1913, 9,876; 1914, 8,522; 1915, 4,572; 1916, 5,212; 1917, 2,518; and 1918, 1,226. The greatest number of Norwegians emigrate to the United States, a few to Canada. The respective figures for these two countries are: 1911, 11,122 and 1,304; 1912, 7,776 and 1,287; 1913, 8,568 and 1,281; 1914, 7,723 and 775; 1915, 4,388 and 169; 1916, 4,865 and 320; 1917, 2,344 and 168; 1918, 1,179 and 30. It was estimated in 1921 that Norwegians outside the homeland numbered about 1,600,000, making a total of about 4,300,000 of Norwegians and descendants of Norwegians in Norway and America. The average yearly percentage of increase in the Norwegian population in 1900-10 was 0.66, and in 1910-20 was 1.02; for the country districts it was respectively 0.62 and 1.04, and for the towns 0.74 and 0.96.

Norwegians are, as a nation, of a comparatively pure race. Until the World War only two foreign races had domiciliary rights in the country, i.e. Lapps (or Finns) and Quains (Kvaenerne) or Finlanders. The first belong to the historical, ancient race of northernmost Norway, the last have immigrated from Finland during the last 200 years. The Lapps (speaking strictly, the Swedish description of folk who live in northern Norway are called “Finns”) belong to the Mongolian race, and the Quains are derived from the scattered tribes of the population of Finland.


 * (K. V. H.)

Recent Political History.—On the dissolution of the Union between Norway and Sweden in 1905 the internal party strife, which for a generation had exhausted the best energies of the country, ceased. It had been carried on between the Conservative party—chiefly an official party, which up to the severance of the union with Sweden sought to maintain this union so long as it could be carried out in a form in accordance with Norwegian national feeling and the old Left, which still maintained its traditions dating from the 'eighties of the 19th century, when Johan Sverdrup (see ) was all-powerful in Norway's domestic politics. The negotiations with Sweden under successive Governments had in 1905 reached a deadlock, and a crisis in the union presented itself at the same moment when the Norwegian parties were prepared to unite for common action. It was the fortune of Chr. Michelsen (b. 1857) to find this concord. With the liquidation of the union, and the consequent revision of the constitution as his sole programme, he formed in 1905 the so-called “7th of June Government,” which practically had the whole Storthing and the whole of the people behind it. Meanwhile a new electoral party had entered into politics. From 1890 Labour had begun to separate itself from the Radical Left, and nad formed the Social Democratic party, which subsequently increased in numbers and influence at succeeding elections, both in the Storthing and municipal councils. Although this party was not represented in the 1905 Government, it was nevertheless capable of forming a group which afterward had to be reckoned with. Simultaneously the new trade-union movement continued to progress, and gradually secured a separate influence in politics. On June 22 1906 the coronation of the new Norwegian King took place at Trondhjem, and thereby the mandate of the joint Government was consummated. The Storthing, however, continued its functions until a new National Assembly should be elected in the autumn. Chr. Michelsen personally opened the election campaign on June 26 with an address at Trondhjem outlining his programme. In it he recommended continued coöperation between the parties in order to “safeguard and consolidate the results of 1905.” The Government programme involved the maintenance of the coalition, with a leaning towards the Left, and provided a basis for the “new labour day” which was now to be inaugurated. This standpoint so far secured the adhesion of the electors that there were elected 77 Liberals and Left of all shades, the majority being Coalitionists, while 36 Conservatives were elected who would only promise a conditional support to the Government, and 10 Socialists who stood in direct opposition to them. The position of the Government was therefore weakened after the meeting of the new Storthing, and its opponents combined themselves into a constantly more aggressive opposition. Attacks on the Government were notably strong during the spring session of the Storthing in 1907, when the question of establishing by law one of the “concessions” recommended by the Radical Left—for the purpose of conserving the natural resources of the country—came into the foreground.

In fact, the pivot of Norway's politics during 1906-12 was the so-called “Concession-case,” i.e. the right of foreigners as well as of natives to hold, by Government concession, real property in Norway, especially waterfalls, mines and forests. This question came to the front during the second half of 1906, and in 1907 it gradually became obvious that it was about to cause a split in the majority bloc. However, this did not take place until after the withdrawal of Michelsen from public life in Oct. 1907, when the Cabinet was reconstructed by Jorgen Lovland (b. 1848), Minister for Foreign Affairs in the Michelsen Government. It was Mr. Lövland who negotiated the treaty guaranteeing the territoral integrity of Norway, signed on Nov. 2 1907, by Norway, France, Germany, Great Britain and Russia. One section of the large Government majority was in sympathy with the liberal “concession policy” of the Government, whereas the radical wing of the same majority claimed the issuing of laws that would limit the invasion of foreign capital. This conflict on one of the greatest problems of national economics finally led to a rupture, the result of which was the establishment of two different parties, the Radical or “Consolidated Left,” and the “Liberal Left.” In March 1908 Lövland's Cabinet, backed up by the Conservatives, and the Liberal Left, was driven to resign by the opposition of the Radicals and the Socialists. Gunnar Knudsen (b. 1848) formed a new Cabinet (March 18 1908). Besides being Premier he held the portfolio of the Minister of Finance. In his Government the radical Minister of Justice, Johan Castberg (b. 1862), attained great influence, especially as regards the elaboration of the new Concession Laws, which were passed in 1909. These laws, concerning (1) waterfalls, mines and other real property, and (2) forests, were sharply opposed by the Conservatives and the Liberal Left, as representing too severe an encroachment upon private property. In consequence of this opposition a reorganization of the Liberal party took place in March 1909, initiated by Chr. Michelsen, the former Premier. The coöperation between the reorganized Liberals and the Conservatives resulted in a new majority for these parties at the next general elections (Oct. 1909). This majority included 63 Conservatives and Liberals, as against 47 Radicals, 11 Socialists and 2 Independents.

In the meantime an old question of controversy between Norway and Sweden had been settled. From olden times the suzerainty over a certain group of submarine skerries (shelves) in the Kattegat, the Grisebaaer (Swedish: Grisbadarne), situated between the Norwegian group of islands, the Hvaler, and the Swedish islands of Koster, in the waters south of Fredrikshald, had been a matter of dispute between the two countries. The Grisebaaer, on account of the lobster fisheries in these waters, are not without a certain economic value. On March 14 1908 a convention was concluded between Norway and Sweden, by which the question of the right drawing of the border-line between these skerries was submitted to arbitration by the Hague Tribunal. The decree of the Tribunal, on Oct. 23, decided that the border-line be drawn in such a way that the Grisebaaer proper fell to Sweden, and a group of smaller submarine rocks, the so-called Skjöttegrunder, to Norway.

When the new Storthing met in Jan. 1910, Mr. Gunnar Knudsen tendered the resignation of his Ministry. It was with some difficulty that a new Government was formed, but finally, on Feb. 1 1910, the leader of the Liberals, Wollert Konow (from Fane, near Bergen, b. 1845), succeeded in constituting a Cabinet, consisting of Liberals and Conservatives, the former being preponderant within the Government, although the latter represented the majority in the Storthing. Women, having obtained in 1907 conditional rights of Parliamentary voting, were, in June 1910, granted by this Government the unrestricted Municipal vote. While the Konow Cabinet was in power a new Concessions Act and a new municipal taxation law were passed, both in 1911. In the same year, a new cable communication was established between Norway and Great Britain (Arendal-Newcastle).

The disproportionate representation of the parties in the

Government caused friction between the two allied groups and ultimately brought about a crisis resulting in the resignation of Konow and some of his Liberal colleagues (Feb. 1912). The Government was reconstructed by Jens Bratlie (b. 1856), with Conservatives as its chief element. Among the members of the Konow Government who passed into the Bratlie Cabinet was the Foreign Minister, Johannes Irgens (b. 1869), formerly Norwegian Minister in London, and after 1916 Minister in Copenhagen. When Mr. Bratlie became Premier he had to resign his seat in the Storthing and was replaced by the vice-deputy member, Miss Anna Rogstad (b. 1854), who had been in the Storthing during the temporary absence of Mr. Bratlie in 1911. The case attracted general notice, as Miss Rogstad was the first woman representative in any independent National Assembly outside that of Finland, which admitted women in 1907.

At the general elections of 1912 a Radical wave swept the country, the final results being 76 Radicals, as against 24 Conservatives and Liberals and 23 Socialists. The Government, however, decided to remain in office till the Storthing met in Jan. 1913, when a new Cabinet was formed under the leadership of Gunnar Knudsen as Premier, with Niels Claus Ihlen (b. 1855; owner of a great foundry, and between 1908-10 Minister of Public Works) as Foreign Minister. This Cabinet remained in power until 1920.

Although the new Storthing, the outcome of the general elections of 1912, included no women, universal suffrage was extended to women in 1913. By an amendment of the constitution adopted in that year, Cabinet ministers were entitled to hold seats in the Storthing.

When war broke out in 1914 an extraordinary Storthing was called into session to decide upon the measures to be taken for the maintenance of the neutrality, or possibly for the defence, of the country. The sum of 10,000,000 kr. was voted for military purposes. A provisional moratorium was decided upon, and the right to redeem the Bank of Norway notes in gold was suspended for the time being. However, it was felt that the World War meant difficulties and dangers to each and all of the northern nations. The continual maintenance of neutrality was, to all of them, a matter of vital interest. Already on Aug. 1 1914, acting in coöperation, the authorities of the three countries passed resolutions binding the respective nations to take up and maintain an attitude of strict neutrality in the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. On Aug. 4 this declaration was repeated and extended so as to form a general rule of conduct during the war. On Aug. 8 a separate agreement was signed, in Christiania, on behalf of the Norwegian and Swedish Governments, embodying binding assurances from both sides, the purpose of which was to remove any possibility of either of the two kingdoms preparing hostile actions against the other.

The outcome of this desire for joint action in the political and diplomatic fields was a number of official meetings held during the war between the Monarchs, the Premiers and the Foreign Ministers of the Scandinavian countries. The first of these took place Dec. 18-19 1914, when, invited by the Swedish King, the two other Scandinavian Sovereigns met him at Malmo, where joint action was agreed upon in regard to solving a number of diplomatic questions, and questions appertaining to international law. In accordance with resolutions arrived at during this inaugural meeting, conferences were held in Copenhagen (March 9-11 1916), in Christiania (Sept. 19-20 1916), and in Stockholm (May 9-11 1917), where the Premiers and the Foreign Ministers of the three countries met. On Nov. 28-30 1917, the Kings of Sweden and Denmark paid an official visit to the Court of Christiania. King Haakon, on Sept. 16-18 1918, in Stockholm, returned the official visit of the King of Sweden. During June 26-28 of the same year, in continuance of the previous conferences of Scandinavian Cabinet ministers, a fresh meeting was held in

Copenhagen. The last in this series of conferences took place in Stockholm (May 26-28 1919), in Christiania (Feb. 1-4 1920), and in Copenhagen (Aug. 28-30 1920). Besides these diplomatic and political conferences, a number of inter-Scandinavian meetings were held for the purpose of looking after common interests in the field of legislation, communication, commerce, administration and science. This new “Scandinavianism” differs essentially from the old ideological “University-Scandinavianism” of 1860. The adherents of the new movement acknowledge an absolute equality of rights in the relationship between the three nations, and presuppose a feeling of sympathy between these peoples, thrown upon each other through geographical propinquity, historical development and kindredship of race. The recognition of this fact gives rise in the three countries to a parallel “movement” for the purpose of organizing, in regular and permanent forms, inter-Scandinavian coöperation. The feeling grew steadily stronger that a similar organization would be of great import even in post-war times and on Feb. 24 1919 a great number of representative men in the three countries addressed the Public with an invitation to form a new society, the Norden (the North), having for its programme the defence of Right and Peace and common interests. The society has established a separate section and sub-sections for each of the three countries, having each their own management. The Norwegian section was founded on April 12 1919. A year-book is issued for the whole of the society. Its title is Norden. Two volumes, 1920 and 1921, have been published (Stockholm and Christiania).

A memorable year in the history of Norway was 1914, one hundred years having then elapsed since the country broke from Denmark to start as an independent state, sharing with Sweden, until 1905, her King and the administration of foreign affairs. The jubilee year was celebrated with a general Norwegian retrospective exhibition, at Christiania, embracing industry and fine arts. This exposition proved that in all fields of economic, industrial, technical and social activities, and not less in the spheres of intellectual life, science and art the country had progressed in a wonderful degree. Even financially the exhibition would have been a success, had it not been interrupted by the war.

The critical situation evoked by the outbreak of war in the industries of the country rendered emergency measures necessary in order to secure supplies, especially food-stuffs and coal. On Aug. 2 1914 a limitation was put on the amount of bread allowed to be sold, and mill owners suspended all orders. On Aug. 3 a panic set in, and the population of the towns stormed the shops to buy up goods. On Aug. 4 a Victualling Commission for the whole country was established. The task of this commission was to regulate the purchase from abroad of all the more important food-stuffs and necessaries of daily consumption, and to control their sale. On Aug. 5 a Royal decree was issued ordering the establishment of local victualling councils in all communes. The extraordinary Storthing which assembled on Aug. 8, however, helped to allay the feeling of panic, and a more tranquil condition came about by degrees. On Aug. 18 1914 war insurance for the Norwegian merchant fleet was established, and on Sept. 8 a private joint-stock company, the Norwegian Goods War Insurance Co., was instituted. At the close of Sept. the maximum prices already introduced for food-stuffs were provisionally abolished, except for certain kinds of bread. In place of them the Victualling Commission received authority to control prices and imports. This arrangement later involved a division of such administrative work, a Price Directorate being established in the following year to exercise control over the prices of all goods in retail trade. On Sept. 26 the Norwegian Government was authorized to take up a loan from Hambro & Son, London, of £600,000 (at 7% interest), so as to pay for two warships which were under construction for the Norwegian Government in English shipyards. These ships were, however, never delivered, since the British Government laid an embargo on them before their delivery. On Nov. 3 1914 England declared the whole of the North Sea to be a war zone, and Norwegian shipping was restricted to a small passage, Lindesnes-Farnesland; and on Nov. 5 the British Government stopped the passage N. of Scotland,

though permission was given for ships of the Norwegian-American Line, as from Nov. 7, to go that way. In 1915 and 1916 a considerable quantity of corn, meal, sugar, forage and fertilizing stuffs was bought in and contracted for by the Victualling Commission, which took over the whole trade in these articles. In 1915 a special commission was set up for dealing with the question of the national corn-supply in the event of the creation of a State monopoly. From 1916 all prices began to increase tremendously. The rise in prices kept pace with the ever-advancing increase in wages and salaries, and the pressure of high prices was rendered more acute by the high freights on all supplies from abroad. Thus from 1916 steadily increasing difficulties arose for most of the industries of the country, and the greater part of the population was affected, though an exception was found in the case of shipowners, whose profits were large. From March 8 1916, the Bank of Norway once again became obliged to redeem its bills with gold, but practically no advantage was taken of this, the population remaining passive as regards the facility of again obtaining gold. In 1916 it became necessary to introduce rationing of all the more important food-stuffs, especially all grain and meal products, meat, sugar, coffee and tea. The increasing difficulties of transport from abroad during 1917 rendered it necessary on Jan. 13 1918 to introduce a complete rationing of sugar, coffee, corn and meal goods. In the spring of 1919 the abolition of emergency regulations commenced, but it was carried out very slowly and with great caution, as all economic and social conditions had been deranged.

In June 1916 a heavy struggle in the labour market arose. It involved 120,000 industrial and transport workers and gave rise to some very frenzied demonstrations. On July 9 1916 the Storthing, as an urgent measure, and against Socialist protest, adopted a law compelling arbitration in industrial disputes. The last of the great labour conflicts of that time (mine-workers) was settled under the new Arbitration Law on July 22 1916.

The destruction of Norwegian merchant shipping by sinking and torpedoing commenced in the first days of the war, and increased steadily later until nearly the close of the war. In the autumn of 1916 even the Arctic Ocean became involved in the danger zone. Nevertheless, from the first day of the war till the last, Norwegian shipowners and seamen maintained their shipping on all the seas, though for a long time the heavy losses in ships could not nearly be replaced by new tonnage. The total loss of the country on the sea was 831 ships, of which 652 were steam or motor and 179 sailing ships, making a total of 1,238,300 registered tons. One thousand two hundred men were slain by torpedo or mine. These facts made a great impression in the Entente countries, and testimony hereto was provided by the presentation of a commemorative tablet for the Norwegian , seamen lost through the war, which was placed on the masonry of the old fortress in Bergen. The memorial tablet was unveiled with great ceremony on Oct. 2 1921 by the vice-president of the Norwegian Club in London, Mr. Slingsby. The inscription reads: “To honour the memory of that great Company of free Norsemen, who, though at peace with all men, dared to defy the perils and horrors of War, and in rightful service endured fearlessly to the end, this monument is set up by their friends and admirers in Great Britain.” (S. C. H.)

The first decade of the twentieth century was memorable in Norwegian literature for the passing away of the four great classics of the preceding epoch: Ibsen, Björnson, Lie and Kielland. After their death Knut Hamsun (b. 1857), Hans E. Kinck (b. 1865), Arne Garborg (b. 1851) and, Gunnar Heiberg (b. 1857) became the leading literary figures, the first two chiefly as novelists, Garborg as a social and religious philosopher and poet, Heiberg chiefly as a dramatist and essayist. After the constitutional crisis of 1905, economic and social problems came to the forefront in Norwegian public life, and new ideas became prominent also in the field of fiction. There was a continuation, too, of the maal controversy (see ), i.e. the effort to create an entirely independent Norwegian literary language based upon the

peasant dialect (landsmaal), descended from the old Norse, in place of the Dano-Norwegian rigsmaal.

Hamsun had now become the most prominent representative of autobiographic fiction in Norwegian literature. His earlier productions in novels (especially Victoria, 1898), and particularly in his trilogy of dramas, Rikets port (1895), Divets Spil (1896) and Aftenröde (1898), were more especially occupied by the play and problems of eroticism, while his volume of verse; Det Vilde Kot (1904), contained emotional lyrics, including elegant poems of homage to Björnson and Byron. He then turned back again to self-absorbing psychological analysis in a series of narratives, Under höststjernen (1906), Benoni (1907), and Rosa (1908), which combine a curious bitter-sweet irony of life with cool epic presentation. These narratives formed a steppingstone to his cycle of social romances, Den siste glaede (1912), a satire on tourist traffic which he denounces as demoralizing the Norwegian people, Börn av tiden (1913), Segelfoss By (1915), Markens gröde (1917), Nyjord (1918) and Konerne ved vandposten (1920). In these mature works, Hamsun has unrolled his picture of modern Norway; he here finds that industrialism has displaced agriculture, unhealthy speculation the honest, unassuming, but ethically invigorating toil of the day. Many of his books have been translated in England and America, such as Growth of the Soil (1920), Pan and Mothwise (1921; originally published in 1904 under the title of Svärmere). Markens gröde (Growth of the Soil) in 1920 secured him the Nobel prize. Hamsun's collected works have appeared in many editions, but the most complete is in the Jubilee Issue, published during the winter of 1921-2.

In Hans E. Kinck a strange, sombre, bitter and mocking romanticism is accompanied by a distinct strain of mystic horror. But no writer has excelled him in knowledge of the characteristics of the people of Norway. He himself grew up in Setesdalen and Hardanger, where tradition is still fresh and living. He displays his talents best in small peasant stories; one of his chief types is a man who is half dreamer, half horse-dealer. His series of romances, Sneskavlen Brast (1919), is remarkable for its weird realism. His dramas exhibit a fantasy which suggests the inspiration of Victor Hugo; Den sisste gjaest (1911) and Mot Karneval (1915) introduce Aretino and Machiavelli respectively, and his interest in historical personalities is also shown in the arresting essays Reconnaissancemennesker (1916). Kinck's profuse use of dialect words and self-coined expressions makes his works somewhat difficult even to his own countrymen; but he has found an inspired American interpreter and translator in Alfred E. Henderson, whose version of Dr. Gabriel Jahr was published in New York in 1921.

Arne Garborg had already written a cycle of lyrics in the landsmaal, Haugtussa (1895), which cleverly pictured a young peasant girl's natural emotions, her belief in subterranean and supernatural beings. In later years he showed his poetic ability in masterly translations into that tongue,—Odysseuskvædet (1918), a selection from the Mahabharata (1921), Holberg's classical comedy Jeppe paa Berget (1921). The last named was for presentation at a theatre established for the landsmaal, in the founding of which he took part together with his wife, Hulda Garborg (b. 1862), who has also written a volume of romance (Frau Evas Dagbog, 1905) and several plays. A jubilee edition of Arne Garborg's collected works, Skrifter i samling, was appearing in 1921-2.

Gunnar Heiberg has produced a series of effective dramatic works, mostly dealing with scenes in Norway. In a series of political and social plays, with relentless mockery, he pursues rhetoric when he encounters it,—the Björnson ethical imperative in Kong Midas (1890), nationalism in Folkeraadet, journalistic self-importance in Harald Svan's mor, philanthropy in Kjaerlighet til naesten, patriotism in Jeg vil verge mit land (a play on Norwegian politics at the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905), and, above all, with Aristophanic mockery in the comedy Paradesengen, which aroused a great sensation by aiming directly at Björnstjerne Björnson and his family. Some of his journalistic articles from Paris, where he resided for many years, were later collected in Parisbreve (1909),

Set og hört (1917), Ibsen og Björnson paa scenen, Franske visiter, Norsk teater (1920).


 * (S. C. H.)